Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

do-Pakistani wars and
conflicts

do-Pakistani wars and conflicts

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Contents

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts 1

Background 8

Indian independence movement 8

Pakistan Movement 26

Wars 33

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 34

Indo-Pakistani War of 1 947 34

Partition of India 42

Kashmir conflict 42

Stages of the war 66

Military operations in Ladakh (1948) 66

Military operations in Poonch (1948) 68

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 72

Indo-Pakistani War of 1 965 72

Aerial warfare 90

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1 965 90

Indian Air Force 96

Pakistan Air Force 110

Naval hostilities 128

Operation Dwarka 128

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 132

Indo-Pakistani War of 1 97 1 132

Background 149

Bangladesh Liberation War 149

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 166

Naval hostilities 177

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 177

Air operations 183

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 183

Surrender 193

Instrument of Surrender (1971) 193

Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 195

Kargil War 195

War progress 212

Kargil order of battle 212

Nuclear conflict 216

Smiling Buddha 216

Kirana Hills 220

Pokhran-II 224

Chagai-I 232

Kharan Desert 240

Other armed engagements 243

Indian integration of Junagadh 243

Siachen conflict 246

Operation Brasstacks 25 1

Sir Creek 253

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 255

2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff 262

India— Pakistan maritime trespassing 265

Incidents 267

Atlantique Incident 267

2008 Mumbai attacks 273

201 1 India-Pakistan border shooting 291

In popular culture 293

Films (Indian) 294

Hindustan Ki Kasam 294

Aakraman 296

Vijeta 297

Param Vir Chakra (film) 299

Border (1997 film) 301

LOC Kargil 305

Deewaar (2004 film) 309

Lakshya (film) 310

1971 (film) 315

Kurukshetra (2008 film) 324

Miniseries/Dramas (Pakistani) 32 g

Angar Wadi 326

Laag (TV series) 327

Alpha Bravo Charlie 328

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain 33 1

Battles of Indo-Pakistani wars 333

Operation Barisal 333

Operation Python 334

Operation Trident ( 1 97 1 ) 336

Battle of AsalUttar 339

Battle of Atgram 341

Battle of Basantar 346

Battle of Boyra 351

Battle of Chamb 354

Battle of Dhalai 354

Battle of Kushtia 354

Capture of Kishangarh Fort 354

Battle of Garibpur 356

Battle of Gazipur 357

Battle of Hilli 360

Defence of KamalPur 362

Khemkaran 364

Lahore Front 366

Battle of Longewala 369

Meghna Heli Bridge 374

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 197 1 375

Operation Chengiz Khan 38 1

Operation Gibraltar 387

Operation Meghdoot 391

Operation Safed Sagar 394

Battle of Phillora 397

Tangail Airdrop 398

Battle of Tololing 399

References

Article Sources and Contributors 400

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 408

Article Licenses

License 412

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Since the partition of British India in 1947 and creation of India and
Pakistan, the two South Asian countries have been involved in four
wars, including one undeclared war, as well as many border skirmishes
and military stand-offs. Additionally, India has accused Pakistan of
engaging in proxy wars by providing military and financial assistance
to violent non-state actors.

The dispute for Kashmir has been the cause, whether direct or indirect
of all major conflicts between the two countries with the exception of
the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, where conflict originated due to
turmoil in erstwhile East Pakistan.

The F-86 Sabre was a front-line fighter of the
PAF during the 1 965 and 1 97 1 wars.

Background

Further information: Indian independence movement and Pakistan
Movement

The Partition of India came about in the aftermath of World War II,
when both Great Britain and British India were dealing with the
economic stresses caused by the war and its demobilisation. It was
the intention of those who wished for a Muslim state to come from
British India to have a clean partition between independent and equal

"Pakistan" and "Hindustan" once independence came

12]

Refugees awaiting evacuation by IAF Dakota on
Poonch Airstrip, December 1947.

The partition itself, according to leading politicians such as

Mohammed Ali Jinnah, leader of the All India Muslim League, and Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the Indian National
Congress, should have resulted in peaceful relations. However, the partition of British India into India and Pakistan
in 1947 did not divide the nations cleanly along religious lines. Nearly one third of the Muslim population of British
India remained in India. Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims resulted in between

500,000 to 1 million casualties

[1]:6

Princely-ruled territories, such as Kashmir and Hyderabad, were also involved in Partition. Rulers of these territories
had the choice of joining India or Pakistan. Both India and Pakistan laid claim on Kashmir and thus it became the
main point of conflict. The ruler of Kashmir, which had a Muslim majority population, joined India by signing

the Instrument of Accession

[4]

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Wars

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

This is also called the First Kashmir War. The war started in October

1947 when it was feared by the Kashmiris that Maharajah of the
princely state of Kashmir and Jammu might accede to India as choice
was given to him on the matter to accede to any of the newly
independent nations. Tribal forces from Pakistan attacked and occupied
the princely state, resulting in Maharajah signing the Agreement to the
accession of the princely state to India. The United Nations was invited
by India to mediate the quarrel resulting in the UN Security Council
passing Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The war ended in December

1948 with the Line of Control dividing Kashmir into territories
administered by Pakistan (northern and western areas) and India
(southern, central and northeastern areas).

Sherman tanks of 18th Cavalry (Indian Army) on
the move during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

This war started following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was
designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an
insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching an attack
on Pakistan. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both
sides and was witness to the largest tank battle in military history since
World War II. The outcome of this war was a strategic stalemate with
some small tactical victories for both sides. The war concluded after
diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and USA and the
subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.

Pakistan's PNS Ghazi, was a significant threat to
Indian Navy in 1965 and 1971 wars.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

The war was unique in that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis brewing
in erstwhile East Pakistan. Following Operation Searchlight and the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities, about 10 million
Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighbouring India. India intervened in the ongoing Bangladesh liberation

movement

[7] [8]

After a large scale pre-emptive strike by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries
commenced. Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces in East Pakistan surrendered to India following
which the People's Republic of Bangladesh was created. This war saw the highest number of casualties in any of
the India-Pakistan conflicts, as well as the largest number of prisoners of war since the Second World War after the
surrender of more than 90,000 Pakistani military and civilians.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1999 (minor war)

Commonly known as Kargil War, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. Pakistani troops along
with Kashmiri insurgents infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and occupied Indian territory mostly in the
Kargil district. The Pakistani government believed that its nuclear weapons would deter a full-scale escalation in
conflict but India launched a major military campaign to flush out the infiltrators. Due to Indian military advances
and increasing foreign diplomatic pressure, Pakistan was forced to withdraw its forces back across the LoC.

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Nuclear conflict

The Nuclear conflict between both countries is of passive strategic nature with Nuclear doctrine of Pakistan stating a
first strike policy, although the strike would only be initiated if and only if, the Pakistan Armed Forces are unable to
halt an invasion (as for example in 1971 war) or a nuclear strike is launched against Pakistan while India has a
declared policy of No first use.

ri2i

• Pokhran-I (Smiling Buddha): On 18 May 1974 India detonated an 8 Kiloton nuclear device at Pokhran Test

Range becoming the first nation to become nuclear capable outside the five permanent members of United

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Nations Security Council as well as dragging Pakistan along with it into a nuclear arms race with the Pakistani
Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto swearing to reciprocate India. The Pakistan Atomic Energy

Commission Chairman Munir Ahmed Khan said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear
bomb. [16]

• Kirana-I: In 1980s a series of 24 different cold tests were conducted by Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission led

ri7i
by Chairman Munir Ahmad Khan under extreme secrecy. The tunnels at Kirana Hills, Sargodha, are reported

to have been bored after the Chagai nuclear test sites, it is widely believed that the tunnels were constructed

sometime between 1979 and 1983. As in Chagai, the tunnels at Kirana Hills had been bored and then sealed and

ri7i

this task was also undertaken by PAEC's DTD. Later due to excessive US intelligence and satellite focus on
the Kirana Hills site, it was abandoned and the WTL-I was shifted to the Kala-Chitta Range.

• Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti): On 1 1 May 1998 India detonated another 5 nuclear devices at Pokhran Test
Range. With jublication and large scale approval from the Indian society came International sanctions as a
reaction to this test. The most vehement reaction of all coming from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan,
which issued a severe statement claiming that India was instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Pakistan
vowed to match India's nuclear capability with statements like, "We are in a headlong arms race on the
subcontinent."

• Chagai-I: (Youm-e-Takbir) Within half a month of Pokhran-II, on 28 May 1998 Pakistan detonated 5 nuclear
devices to reciprocate India in the nuclear arms race. Pakistani public, like the Indian, reacted with a celebration
and heightened sense of nationalism for responding to India in kind and becoming the only Muslim nuclear
power. The day was later given the title Youm-e-Takbir to further proclaim such.

• Chagai-II: Two days later, on 30 May 1998, Pakistan detonated a 6th nuclear device completing its own series of

[21] [221

underground tests with this being the last test the two nations have carried out to date.

Other armed engagements

Apart from the aforementioned wars, there have been skirmishes between the two nations from time to time. Some
have bordered on all-out war, while others were limited in scope. The countries were expected to fight each other in
1955 after warlike posturing on both sides, but full-scale war did not break out.

• Indian integration of Junagadh: The princely state of Junagadh, which had a Hindu majority and a Muslim
ruler acceded to Pakistan on 15 September 1947, claiming a connection by sea. Pakistan's acceptance of the
Instrument of Accession was seen as a strategy to get a plebiscite held in Kashmir which had a Muslim majority
and a Hindu ruler. Following communal tensions Indian military entered the territory which was protested by
Pakistan as a violation of International law. Later a plebiscite was held and the accession was reversed for the

t t t â–  â–  j a- [23] [24] [25] [26]

state to join India.

• Kashmir conflict: Other than the three wars mentioned in above section, the conflict, since accession of the state
on 26 October 1947, has been an on and off major cause for the tensions between the two nations.

• Siachen conflict: In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot capturing most of the Siachen Glacier. Further
clashes erupted in the glacial area in 1985, 1987 and 1995 as Pakistan sought, without success, to oust India from
its stronghold.

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

• Operation Brasstacks: (the largest of its kind in South Asia), conducted by India between November 1986 and
March 1987, and Pakistani mobilisation in response, raised tensions and fears that it could lead to another war
between the two neighbours.

• Sir Creek: The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh. Before

India's independence, the provincial region was a part of Bombay Presidency of British India. After India's

independence in 1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch remained a part of India. Pakistan lays claim

[291
to the entire creek as per paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed between the

then Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj of Kutch.

• Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir: An insurgency in Indian-administered Kashmir has been a cause for
heightened tensions.

• 2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff: The terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament on 13 December 2001, which

India blamed on the Pakistan-based terrorist organisations Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed, prompted the

T311
2001—2002 India-Pakistan standoff and brought both sides close to war.

• India— Pakistan maritime trespassing: frequent trespassing and violation of respective national territorial waters
of India and Pakistan in peacetime occurs commonly by Pakistani and Indian fishermen operating along the
coastline of the Indian state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sindh. Most violations occur due to the
absence of a physical boundary and lack of navigational tools for small fishermen. Hundreds of fishermen are
arrested by the Coast Guards of both nations, but obtaining their release is difficult and long-winded owing to the
hostile relations between the two nations.

Incidents

• Atlantique Incident: Pakistan Navy's Naval Air Arm Breguet Atlantique patrol plane, carrying 16 people on
board, was shot down by the Indian Air Force for alleged violation of airspace. The episode took place in the
Rann of Kutch on 10 August 1999, just a month after the Kargil War, creating a tense atmosphere between India
and Pakistan. Foreign diplomats noted that the plane fell inside Pakistani territory, although it may have crossed
the border. However, they also believe that India's reaction was unjustified. Pakistan later lodged a
compensation claim at the International Court of Justice, accusing India for the incident, but the court dismissed
the case in India's favour.

• 2008 Mumbai attacks: Following 10 coordinated shooting and bombing attacks across Mumbai, India's largest

r37ir38i
city, tensions heightened between the two countries since India claimed interogation results alleging

Pakistan's ISI supporting the attackers while Pakistan denied it. Pakistan placed its air force on alert and

moved troops to the Indian border voicing concerns about proactive movements of Indian Army and Indian

[43]
government's possible plans to launch attacks on Pakistani soil. The tension diffused in short time and Pakistan

moved its troops away from border.

• 2011 India— Pakistan border shooting: incident took place between 30 August (Tuesday) and 1 September 201 1
(Thursday) across the Line of Control in Kupwara District/Neelam Valley resulting in one Indian soldier and
three Pakistani soldiers being killed. Both countries gave different accounts of the incident, each accusing the
other of initiating the hostilities.

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Annual celebrations

• 28 May (since 1998) as Youm-e-Takbir (The day of Greatness) in Pakistan.

• 26 July (since 1999) as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil Victory Day) in India.

• 6 September (since 1965) as Defence Day (Youm-e-Difa) in Pakistan.

• 7 September (since 1965) as Air Force Day (Youm-e-Fizaya) in Pakistan.

• 8 September (since 1965) as Victory Day/Navy Day in Pakistan.

• 4 December (since 1971) as Navy Day in India.

• 16 December (since 1971) as Vijay Diwas (Victory Day) in India.

In popular culture

These wars have provided source material for both Indian and Pakistani film and television dramatists, who have
adapted events of the war for the purposes of drama and to please target audiences in their nations.

Films (Indian)

• Hindustan Ki Kasam, a 1973 Hindi war film based on Operation Cactus Lilly of the 197 1 Indo-Pakistani War,
directed by Chetan Anand.

Aakraman, a 1975 Hindi war film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by J. Om Prakash.
Vijeta, a 1982 Hindi film based on the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, produced by Shashi Kapoor and directed by
Govind Nihalani.

Param Vir Chakra, a 1995 Hindi film based on Indo-Pak War, directed by Ashok Kaul.
Border, a 1997 Hindi war film based on the Battle of Longewala of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war, directed by
J.P.Dutta.

LOC Kargil, a 2003 Hindi war film based on the Kargil War, directed by J.P.Dutta

Deewaar, a 2004 Hindi film starring Amitabh Bachchan based on the POW of the 1971 Indo-Pakistan war,
directed by Milan Luthria.

Lakshya, a 2004 Hindi film partially based on the events of the Kargil War, directed by Farhan Akhtar.
1971, 2007 Hindi war film based on a true story of prisoners of war after the Indo-Pak war of 1971, directed by
Amrit Sagar
Kurukshetra, a 2008 Malayalam film based on Kargil War, directed by Major Ravi.

Miniseries/Dramas (Pakistani)

Angaar Waadi, an Urdu drama serial based on Indian occupation of Kashmir, directed by Rauf Khalid

Laag, an Urdu drama serial based on Indian occupation of Kashmir, directed by Rauf Khalid

Operation Dwarka, 1965, an Urdu drama based on the naval Operation Dwarka of 1965, directed by Qasim Jalali

PNS Ghazi (Shaheed), an Urdu drama based on sinking of PNS Ghazi, ISPR

Alpha Bravo Charlie, an Urdu drama serial based on three different aspects of Pakistan Army's involvement in

action, directed by Shoaib Mansoor

Shahpar, an Urdu drama serial based on Pakistan Air Force, directed by Qaisar Farooq & Syed Shakir Uzair

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain, an Urdu drama serial based on a 1965 war POW, directed by Haider Imam Rizvi

Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

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[48] Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965 — John Fricker — Google Boeken (http://books. google. com/books ?id=RPttAAAAMAAJ&

source=gbs_navlinks_s). Google Books. 1 January 1979. . Retrieved 16 December 201 1.
[49] "Param Vir Chakra (1995)" (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0940893/). IMDB. . Retrieved 26 November 201 1.
[50] APP 25 November 2011 (25 November 2011). "Prominent writer, actor, Rauf Khalid dies in road accident I Entertainment" (http://www.

dawn.com/2011/ll/25/prominent-writer-actor-rauf-khalid-dies-in-road-accident.html). Dawn. Com. . Retrieved 15 January 2012.

External links

• Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistani (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552636)
from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/
10822/552494)

Background

Indian independence movement

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was the pre-eminent political and ideological
leader of India during the Indian independence movement.

Colonial India

Imperial Entities of India

Colonial India

Dutch India

1605-1825

Danish India

1620-1869

French India

1759-1954

Portuguese India 1510-1961

Casa da India

1434-1833

Portuguese East India Company

1628-1633

British India 1613-1947

East India Company

1612-1757

Company rule in India

1757-1857

British Raj

1858-1947

British rule in Burma

1824-1942

1765-1947/48

Partition of India

1947

The term Indian Independence Movement encompasses a wide area of political organisations, philosophies, and
movements which had the common aim of ending first British East India Company rule, and then British imperial
authority, in parts of South Asia. The independence movement saw various national and regional campaigns,

Indian independence movement

agitations and efforts, some nonviolent and others not so.

During the first quarter of the 19th century, Rammohan Roy introduced modern education into India. Swami
Vivekananda was the chief architect who profoundly projected the rich culture of India to the west at the end of 19th
century. Many of the country's political leaders of the 19th and 20th century, including Mahatma Gandhi and Netaji
Subhas Chandra Bose, were influenced by the teachings of Swami Vivekananda.

The first organized militant movements were in Bengal, but they later took to the political stage in the form of a
mainstream movement in the then newly formed Indian National Congress (INC), with prominent moderate leaders
seeking only their basic right to appear for Indian Civil Service examinations, as well as more rights, economic in
nature, for the people of the soil. The early part of the 20th century saw a more radical approach towards political
independence proposed by leaders such as the Lai, Bal, Pal and Aurobindo Ghosh.

The last stages of the freedom struggle from the 1920s onwards saw Congress adopt Mohandas Karamchand
Gandhi's policy of nonviolence and civil resistance, Muhammad Ali Jinnah's constitutional struggle for the rights of
minorities in India, and several other campaigns. Legendary figures such as Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose later came
to adopt a militant approach to the movement, while others like Swami Sahajanand Saraswati wanted both political
and economic freedom for India's peasants and toiling masses. Poets including Rabindranath Tagore used literature,
poetry and speech as a tool for political awareness. The period of the Second World War saw the peak of the
campaigns by the Quit India movement (led by "Mahatma" Gandhi) and the Indian National Army (INA) movement
(led by "Netaji" Subhas Chandra Bose) and others, eventually resulting in the withdrawal of the British.

The work of these various movements led ultimately to the Indian Independence Act 1947, which created the
independent dominions of India and Pakistan. India remained a Dominion of the Crown until 26 January 1950, when
the Constitution of India came into force, establishing the Republic of India; Pakistan was a dominion until 1956.

The Indian independence movement was a mass-based movement that encompassed various sections of society. It
also underwent a process of constant ideological evolution. Although the basic ideology of the movement was
anti-colonial, it was supported by a vision of independent capitalist economic development coupled with a secular,
democratic, republican, and civil-libertarian political structure. After the 1930s, the movement took on a strong
socialist orientation, due to the increasing influence of left-wing elements in the INC as well as the rise and growth
of the Communist Party of India. On the other hand, due to the INC's policies, the All-India Muslim League was
formed in 1906 to protect the rights of Muslims in the Indian Sub-continent against the INC and to present a Muslim
voice to the British government.

Background (1757-1885)

Early British colonialism in India

European traders first reached Indian shores with the arrival of the
Portuguese explorer Vasco da Gama in 1498 at the port of Calicut, in
search of the lucrative spice trade. Just over a century later, the Dutch
and English established trading outposts on the subcontinent, with the
first English trading post set up at Surat in 1612. Over the course of
the 17th and early 18th centuries, the British defeated the Portuguese
and Dutch militarily, but remained in conflict with the French, who had
by then sought to establish themselves in the subcontinent. The decline
of the Mughal empire in the first half of the 18th century provided the
British with the opportunity to seize a firm foothold in Indian
politics. After the Battle of Plassey in 1757, during which the East

Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive with Mir Jafar after
the Battle of Plassey

Indian independence movement

10

India Company's Bengal army under Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daula, the Nawab of Bengal, the Company
established itself as a major player in Indian affairs, and soon afterwards gained administrative rights over the
regions of Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa, following the Battle of Buxar in 1765. After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most
of South India came either under the Company's direct rule, or under its indirect political control as part a princely
state in a subsidiary alliance. The Company subsequently gained control of regions ruled by the Maratha Empire,
after defeating them in a series of wars. Punjab was annexed in 1849, after the defeat of the Sikh armies in the First
(1845-46) and Second (1848-49) Anglo-Sikh Wars.

In 1835 English was made the medium of instruction in India's schools. Western-educated Hindu elites sought to rid
Hinduism of controversial social practices, including the varna caste system, child marriage, and sati. Literary and
debating societies established in Calcutta (Kolkata) and Bombay (Mumbai) became forums for open political
discourse.

Even while these modernising trends influenced Indian society, many
Indians increasingly despised British rule. With the British now
dominating most of the subcontinent, they grew increasingly abusive
of local customs by, for example, staging parties in mosques, dancing
to the music of regimental bands on the terrace of the Taj Mahal, using
whips to force their way through crowded bazaars (as recounted by
General Henry Blake), and mistreating Indians (including the sepoys).
In the years after the annexation of Punjab in 1849, several mutinies
broke out among the sepoys; these were put down by force.

After the defeat of Tipu Sultan, most of South

India was now either under the Company's direct

rule, or under its indirect political control

Indian States during
Revolt of 1857

The rebellion of 1857 and its consequences

The Indian rebellion of 1857 was a large-scale rebellion in northern
and central India against the British East India Company's rule. It was
suppressed and the British government took control of the Company.

The conditions of service in the Company's army and cantonments

increasingly came into conflict with the religious beliefs and prejudices

of the sepoys. Chandra 1989, p. 33 The predominance of members

from the upper castes in the army, perceived loss of caste due to

overseas travel, and rumours of secret designs of the Government to

convert them to Christianity led to deep discontentment among the

sepoys. Chandra 1989, p. 34 The sepoys were also disillusioned by their

low salaries and the racial discrimination practised by British officers

in matters of promotion and privileges. Chandra 1989, p. 34 The

indifference of the British towards leading native Indian rulers such as

the Mughals and ex-Peshwas and the annexation of Oudh were

political factors triggering dissent amongst Indians. The Marquess of

Dalhousie's policy of annexation, the doctrine of lapse (or escheat) applied by the British, and the projected removal

of the descendants of the Great Mughal from their ancestral palace at Red Fort to the Qutb (near Delhi) also angered

some people.

States during the rebellion

Indian independence movement 1 1

The final spark was provided by the rumoured use of tallow (from cows) and lard (pig fat) in the newly introduced
Pattern 1853 Enfield rifle cartridges. Soldiers had to bite the cartridges with their teeth before loading them into their
rifles, and the reported presence of cow and pig fat was religiously offensive to both Hindu and Muslim
soldiers. "The Uprising of 1857" . Library of Congress. Retrieved 2009-11-10.

Mangal Pandey, a 29 year old sepoy, was believed to be responsible for inspiring the Indian sepoys to rise against
the British. On the first week of May 1857, he killed a higher officer in his regiment at Barrackpore for the
introduction of the offensive rule. He was captured and was sentenced to death when the British took back control
over the regiment. On 10 May 1857, the sepoys at Meerut broke rank and turned on their commanding officers,
killing some of them. They then reached Delhi on May 11, set the Company's toll house afire, and marched into the
Red Fort, where they asked the Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II, to become their leader and reclaim his throne.
The emperor was reluctant at first, but eventually agreed and was proclaimed Shehenshah-e-Hindustan by the rebels.
Chandra 1989, p. 31 The rebels also murdered much of the European, Eurasian, and Christian population of the city.
David, S (202) The India Mutiny, Penguin P122

Revolts broke out in other parts of Oudh and the North-Western Provinces as well, where civil rebellion followed the
mutinies, leading to popular uprisings. Chandra 1989, p. 35 The British were initially caught off-guard and were thus
slow to react, but eventually responded with force. The lack of effective organisation among the rebels, coupled with
the military superiority of the British, brought a rapid end to the rebellion. Chandra 1989, pp. 38—39 The British
fought the main army of the rebels near Delhi, and after prolonged fighting and a siege, defeated them and retook the
city on 20 September 1857. Chandra 1989, p. 39 Subsequently, revolts in other centres were also crushed. The last
significant battle was fought in Gwalior on 17 June 1858, during which Rani Lakshmi Bai was killed. Sporadic
fighting and guerrilla warfare, led by Tatya Tope, continued until 1859, but most of the rebels were eventually
subdued.

The Indian Rebellion of 1857 was a major turning point in the history of modern India. While affirming the military
and political power of the British,Heehs 1998, p. 32 it led to significant change in how India was to be controlled by
them. Under the Government of India Act 1858, the Company was deprived of its involvement in ruling India, with
its territory being transferred to the direct authority of the British government. At the apex of the new system was a
Cabinet minister, the Secretary of State for India, who was to be formally advised by a statutory council;Heehs 1998,
pp. 47—48 the Governor-General of India (Viceroy) was made responsible to him, while he in turn was responsible to
the British Parliament for British rule. In a royal proclamation made to the people of India, Queen Victoria promised
equal opportunity of public service under British law, and also pledged to respect the rights of the native
princes. Heehs 1998, p. 48 The British stopped the policy of seizing land from the princes, decreed religious
tolerance, and began to admit Indians into the civil service (albeit mainly as subordinates). However, they also
increased the number of British soldiers in relation to native Indian ones, and only allowed British soldiers to handle
artillery. Bahadur Shah was exiled to Rangoon (Yangon), Burma (Myanmar), where he died in 1862.

In 1876, Queen Victoria took the additional title of Empress of India.

Indian independence movement

12

at. coM'ir.ir^s. ] y8y

Image of the delegates to the first meeting of the Indian National Congress in
Bombay, 1885

Rise of organized movements

The decades following the Rebellion were a
period of growing political awareness,
manifestation of Indian public opinion, and
emergence of Indian leadership at both
national and provincial levels. Dadabhai
Naoroji formed the East India Association in
1867, and Surendranath Banerjee founded the
Indian National Association in 1876.

Inspired by a suggestion made by A. O. Hume,

a retired British civil servant, seventy-three

Indian delegates met in Bombay in 1885 and

founded the Indian National Congress. They

were mostly members of the upwardly mobile

and successful western-educated provincial

elites, engaged in professions such as law,

teaching, and journalism. At its inception, the Congress had no well-defined ideology and commanded few of the

resources essential to a political organization. Instead, it functioned more as a debating society that met annually to

express its loyalty to the British Raj, and passed numerous resolutions on less controversial issues such as civil rights

or opportunities in government (especially in the civil service). These resolutions were submitted to the Viceroy's

government and occasionally to the British Parliament, but the Congress's early gains were meagre. Despite its claim

to represent all India, the Congress voiced the interests of urban elites; the number of participants from other social

and economic backgrounds remained negligible.

The influence of socio-religious groups such as Arya Samaj (started by
Swami Dayanand Saraswati) and Brahmo Samaj (founded by Raja Ram
Mohan Roy and others) became evident in pioneering reforms of Indian
society. The work of men like Swami Vivekananda, Ramakrishna
Paramhansa, Sri Aurobindo, Subramanya Bharathy, Bankim Chandra
Chatterjee, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Rabindranath Tagore, and Dadabhai
Naoroji, as well as women such as the Scots— Irish Sister Nivedita, spread
the passion for rejuvenation and freedom. The rediscovery of India's
indigenous history by several European and Indian scholars also fed into
the rise of nationalism among Indians.

Swami Dayananda Saraswati was an important
Hindu religious scholar, reformer, and founder
of the Arya Samaj, a Hindu reform movement.

Rise of Indian nationalism (1885-1905)

By 2012, although the Congress had emerged as an all-India political
organization, its achievement was undermined by its singular failure to
attract Muslims, who felt that their representation in government service
was inadequate. Attacks by Hindu reformers against religious conversion,
cow slaughter, and the preservation of Urdu in Arabic script deepened their concerns of minority status and denial of
rights if the Congress alone were to represent the people of India. Sir Syed Ahmed Khan launched a movement for
Muslim regeneration that culminated in the founding in 1875 of the Muhammadan Anglo-Oriental College at
Aligarh, Uttar Pradesh (renamed Aligarh Muslim University in 1920). Its objective was to educate wealthy students
by emphasizing the compatibility of Islam with modern western knowledge. The diversity among India's Muslims,
however, made it impossible to bring about uniform cultural and intellectual regeneration.

Indian independence movement 13

The nationalistic sentiments among Congress members led to the movement to be represented in the bodies of
government, to have a say in the legislation and administration of India. Congressmen saw themselves as loyalists,
but wanted an active role in governing their own country, albeit as part of the Empire. This trend was personified by
Dadabhai Naoroji, who went as far as contesting, successfully, an election to the British House of Commons,
becoming its first Indian member.

Bal Gangadhar Tilak was the first Indian nationalist to embrace Swaraj as the destiny of the nation. Tilak deeply
opposed the then British education system that ignored and defamed India's culture, history and values. He resented
the denial of freedom of expression for nationalists, and the lack of any voice or role for ordinary Indians in the
affairs of their nation. For these reasons, he considered Swaraj as the natural and only solution. His popular sentence
"Swaraj is my birthright, and I shall have it" became the source of inspiration for Indians.

In 1907, the Congress was split into two factions. The radicals led by Tilak advocated civil agitation and direct
revolution to overthrow the British Empire and the abandonment of all things British. The moderates led by leaders
like Dadabhai Naoroji and Gopal Krishna Gokhale on the other hand wanted reform within the framework of British
rule. Tilak was backed by rising public leaders like Bipin Chandra Pal and Lala Lajpat Rai, who held the same point
of view. Under them, India's three great states - Maharashtra, Bengal and Punjab shaped the demand of the people
and India's nationalism. Gokhale criticized Tilak for encouraging acts of violence and disorder. But the Congress of
1906 did not have public membership, and thus Tilak and his supporters were forced to leave the party.

But with Tilak's arrest, all hopes for an Indian offensive were stalled. The Congress lost credit with the people. A
Muslim deputation met with the Viceroy, Minto (1905—10), seeking concessions from the impending constitutional
reforms, including special considerations in government service and electorates. The British recognized some of the
Muslim League's petitions by increasing the number of elective offices reserved for Muslims in the Indian Councils
Act 1909. The Muslim League insisted on its separateness from the Hindu-dominated Congress, as the voice of a
"nation within a nation."

Partition of Bengal, 1905

In July 1905, Lord Curzon, the Viceroy and Governor-General (1899—1905), ordered the partition of the province of

ro]

Bengal supposedly for improvements in administrative efficiency in the huge and populous region. It also had
justifications due to increasing conflicts between Muslims and dominant Hindu regimes in Bengal. However the
Indians viewed the partition as an attempt by the British to disrupt the growing national movement in Bengal and
divide the Hindus and Muslims of the region. The Bengali Hindu intelligentsia exerted considerable influence on
local and national politics. The partition outraged Bengalis. Not only had the government failed to consult Indian
public opinion, but the action appeared to reflect the British resolve to divide and rule. Widespread agitation ensued
in the streets and in the press, and the Congress advocated boycotting British products under the banner of swadeshi.
Hindus showed unity by tying Rakhi on each other's wrists and observing Arandhan (not cooking any food). During
this time Bengali Hindu nationalists begin writing virulent newspaper articles and were charged with sedition.
Brahmabhandav Upadhyay, a Hindu newspaper editor who helped Tagore establish his school at Shantiniketan, was
imprisoned and the first martyr to die in British custody in the 20th century struggle for independence. In 1911 the
decision was reversed and Bengal was united.

All India Muslim League

The All India Muslim League was founded by the All India Muhammadan Educational Conference at Dhaka (now
Bangladesh), in 1906, in the context of the circumstances that were generated over the partition of Bengal in 1905.
Being a political party to secure the interests of the Muslim diaspora in British India, the Muslim League played a
decisive role during the 1940s in the Indian independence movement and developed into the driving force behind the
creation of Pakistan in the Indian subcontinent.

Indian independence movement

14

In 1906, Muhammad Ali Jinnah joined the Indian National Congress, which was the largest Indian political
organization. Like most of the Congress at the time, Jinnah did not favour outright independence, considering British
influences on education, law, culture and industry as beneficial to India. Jinnah became a member on the
sixty-member Imperial Legislative Council. The council had no real power or authority, and included a large number
of un-elected pro-Raj loyalists and Europeans. Nevertheless, Jinnah was instrumental in the passing of the Child
Marriages Restraint Act, the legitimization of the Muslim waqf (religious endowments) and was appointed to the
Sandhurst committee, which helped establish the Indian Military Academy at Dehra Dun. During World War I,
Jinnah joined other Indian moderates in supporting the British war effort, hoping that Indians would be rewarded
with political freedoms.

First World War

World War I began with an unprecedented outpouring of love and
goodwill towards the United Kingdom from within the mainstream
political leadership, contrary to initial British fears of an Indian revolt.
India contributed massively to the British war effort by providing men
and resources. About 1.3 million Indian soldiers and labourers served
in Europe, Africa, and the Middle East, while both the Indian
government and the princes sent large supplies of food, money, and
ammunition. However, Bengal and Punjab remained hotbeds of anti
colonial activities. Nationalism in Bengal, increasingly closely linked
with the unrests in Punjab, was significant enough to nearly paralyse

the regional administration

[11][12]

None of the overseas conspiracies had significant impact on Indians
inside India, and there were no major mutinies or violent outbursts.
However, they did lead to profound fears of insurrection among British
officials, preparing them to use extreme force to frighten the Indians

into submission

[131

This photograph shows an emaciated Indian
Army soldier who survived the Siege of Kut

Nationalist response to war

In the aftermath of the World War I, high casualty rates, soaring inflation compounded by heavy taxation, a
widespread influenza epidemic, and the disruption of trade during the war escalated human suffering in India.

The pre-war nationalist movement revived as moderate and extremist groups within the Congress submerged their
differences in order to stand as a unified front. They argued their enormous services to the British Empire during the
war demanded a reward, and demonstrated the Indian capacity for self rule. In 1916, the Congress succeeded in
forging the Lucknow Pact, a temporary alliance with the Muslim League over the issues of devolution of political
power and the future of Islam in the region.

British reforms

The British themselves adopted a "carrot and stick" approach in recognition of India's support during the war and in
response to renewed nationalist demands. In August 1917, Edwin Montagu, the secretary of state for India, made the
historic announcement in Parliament that the British policy for India was "increasing association of Indians in every
branch of the administration and the gradual development of self-governing institutions with a view to the
progressive realization of responsible government in India as an integral part of the British Empire." The means of
achieving the proposed measure were later enshrined in the Government of India Act 1919, which introduced the
principle of a dual mode of administration, or diarchy, in which both elected Indian legislators and appointed British

Indian independence movement

15

officials shared power. The act also expanded the central and provincial legislatures and widened the franchise
considerably. Diarchy set in motion certain real changes at the provincial level: a number of non-controversial or
"transferred" portfolios, such as agriculture, local government, health, education, and public works, were handed
over to Indians, while more sensitive matters such as finance, taxation, and maintaining law and order were retained
by the provincial British administrators

[14]

Gandhi arrives in India

Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi), had been a
prominent leader of the Indian nationalist movement in South Africa,
and had been a vocal opponent of basic discrimination and abusive
labour treatment as well as suppressive police control such as the
Rowlatt Acts. During these protests, Gandhi had perfected the concept
of satyagraha, which had been inspired by the philosophy of Baba
Ram Singh (famous for leading the Kuka Movement in the Punjab in
1872). In January 1914 (well before the First World War began)
Gandhi was successful. The hated legislation against Indians was
repealed and all Indian political prisoners were released by General Jan
Smuts. [15]

Gandhi returned to India, on 6 January 1915 and initially entered the
political fray not with calls for a nation-state, but in support of the
unified commerce-oriented territory that the Congress Party had been
asking for. Gandhi believed that the industrial development and
educational development that the Europeans had brought with them
were required to alleviate many of India's problems. Gopal Krishna
Gokhale, a veteran Congressman and Indian leader, became Gandhi's
mentor. Gandhi's ideas and strategies of non- violent civil disobedience
initially appeared impractical to some Indians and Congressmen. In
Gandhi's own words, "civil disobedience is civil breach of unmoral statutory enactments." It had to be carried out
non-violently by withdrawing cooperation with the corrupt state. Gandhi's ability to inspire millions of common
people became clear when he used satyagraha during the anti-Rowlatt Act protests in Punjab. Gandhi had great
respect for Lokmanya Tilak. His programmes were all inspired by Tilak's "Chatusutri" programme.

Gandhi's vision would soon bring millions of regular Indians into the movement, transforming it from an elitist
struggle to a national one. The nationalist cause was expanded to include the interests and industries that formed the
economy of common Indians. For example, in Champaran, Bihar, Gandhi championed the plight of desperately poor
sharecroppers and landless farmers who were being forced to pay oppressive taxes and grow cash crops at the
expense of the subsistence crops which formed their food supply. The profits from the crops they grew were
insufficient to provide for their sustenance.

The positive impact of reform was seriously undermined in 1919 by the Rowlatt Act, named after the
recommendations made the previous year to the Imperial Legislative Council by the Rowlatt Commission. The
Rowlatt Act vested the Viceroy's government with extraordinary powers to quell sedition by silencing the press,
detaining the political activists without trial, and arresting any individuals suspected of sedition or treason without a
warrant. In protest, a nationwide cessation of work {hartal) was called, marking the beginning of widespread,
although not nationwide, popular discontent.

The agitation unleashed by the acts led to British attacks on demonstrators, culminating on 13 April 1919, in the
Jallianwala Bagh massacre (also known as the Amritsar Massacre) in Amritsar, Punjab. The British military

Gandhi in 1918, at the time of the Kheda and
Champaran satyagrahas

Indian independence movement 16

commander, Brigadier-General Reginald Dyer, blocked the main entrance-cum-exit, and ordered his soldiers to fire
into an unarmed and unsuspecting crowd of some 15,000 men, women and children. They had assembled at
Jallianwala Bagh, a walled courtyard, but Dyer had banned all meetings and proposed to teach all Indians a

lesson. A total of 1,651 rounds were fired, killing 379 people (as according to an official British commission;

ri7i
Indian estimates ranged as high as 1,499 and wounding 1,137 in the massacre. Dyer was forced to retire but was

hailed as a hero in Britain, demonstrating to Indian nationalists that the Empire was beholden to public opinion in

ri Q]

Britain but not in India. The episode dissolved wartime hopes of home rule and goodwill and opened a rift that

ri9i

could not be bridged short of complete independence.

The non-cooperation movements

The independence movement as late as 1918 was an elitist movement far removed from the masses of India,
focusing essentially on a unified commerce-oriented territory and hardly a call for a united nation. Gandhi changed
all that and made it a mass movement.

The first non-cooperation movement

At the Calcutta session of the Congress in September 1920, Gandhi convinced other leaders of the need to start a
non-cooperation movement in support of Khilafat as well as for swaraj (self rule). The first satyagraha movement
urged the use of khadi and Indian material as alternatives to those shipped from Britain. It also urged people to
boycott British educational institutions and law courts; resign from government employment; refuse to pay taxes;
and forsake British titles and honours. Although this came too late to influence the framing of the new Government
of India Act 1919, the movement enjoyed widespread popular support, and the resulting unparalleled magnitude of
disorder presented a serious challenge to foreign rule. However, Gandhi called off the movement following the
Chauri Chaura incident, which saw the death of twenty-three policemen at the hands of an angry mob.

Membership in the party was opened to anyone prepared to pay a token fee, and a hierarchy of committees was
established and made responsible for discipline and control over a hitherto amorphous and diffuse movement. The
party was transformed from an elite organization to one of mass national appeal and participation.

Gandhi was sentenced in 1922 to six years of prison, but was released after serving two. On his release from prison,
he set up the Sabarmati Ashram in Ahmedabad, on the banks of river Sabarmati, established the newspaper Young
India, and inaugurated a series of reforms aimed at the socially disadvantaged within Hindu society — the rural
poor, and the untouchables.

This era saw the emergence of new generation of Indians from within the Congress Party, including C.
Rajagopalachari, Jawaharlal Nehru, Vallabhbhai Patel, Subhash Chandra Bose and others- who would later on come
to form the prominent voices of the Indian independence movement, whether keeping with Gandhian Values, or, as
in the case of Bose's Indian National Army, diverging from it.

The Indian political spectrum was further broadened in the mid- 1920s by the emergence of both moderate and
militant parties, such as the Swaraj Party, Hindu Mahasabha, Communist Party of India and the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh. Regional political organizations also continued to represent the interests of non-Brahmins in
Madras, Mahars in Maharashtra, and Sikhs in Punjab. However, people like Mahakavi Subramanya Bharathi,
Vanchinathan and Neelakanda Brahmachari played a major role from Tamil Nadu in both freedom struggle and
fighting for equality for all castes and communities.

Indian independence movement 17

Purna Swaraj

Following the rejection of the recommendations of the Simon Commission by Indians, an all-party conference was
held at Bombay in May 1928. This was meant to instill a sense of resistance among people. The conference
appointed a drafting committee under Motilal Nehru to draw up a constitution for India. The Calcutta session of the
Indian National Congress asked the British government to accord dominion status to India by December 1929, or a
countrywide civil disobedience movement would be launched. By 1929, however, in the midst of rising political
discontent and increasingly violent regional movements, the call for complete independence from Britain began to
find increasing grounds within the Congress leadership. Under the presidency of Jawaharlal Nehru at its historic
Lahore session in December 1929, the Indian National Congress adopted a resolution calling for complete
independence from the British. It authorised the Working Committee to launch a civil disobedience movement
throughout the country. It was decided that 26 January 1930 should be observed all over India as the Purna Swaraj
(total independence) Day. Many Indian political parties and Indian revolutionaries of a wide spectrum united to
observe the day with honour and pride.

Karachi congress session- 1931 A special session was held to endorse the Gandhi-Irwin or Delhi Pact. The goal of
Purna swaraj was reiterated. Two resolutions were adopted-one on Fundamental rights and other on National
Economic programme, which made the session particularly memmorable.

This was the first time the congress spelt out what swaraj would mean for the masses.

Salt March and civil disobedience

Gandhi emerged from his long seclusion by undertaking his most famous campaign, a march of about 400 kilometers
[240 miles] from his commune in Ahmedabad to Dandi, on the coast of Gujarat between 1 1 March and 6 April 1930.
The march is usually known as the Dandi March or the Salt Satyagraha. At Dandi, in protest against British taxes on
salt, he and thousands of followers broke the law by making their own salt from seawater. It took 24 days for him to
complete this march. Every day he covered 10 miles and gave many speeches.

In April 1930 there were violent police-crowd clashes in Calcutta. Approximately 100,000 people were imprisoned
in the course of the Civil disobedience movement (1930—31), while in Peshawar unarmed demonstrators were fired
upon in the Qissa Khwani bazaar massacre. The latter event catapulted the then newly formed Khudai Khidmatgar
movement (founder Khan Abdul Ghaffar Khan, the Frontier Gandhi) onto the National scene. While Gandhi was in
jail, the first Round Table Conference was held in London in November 1930, without representation from the
Indian National Congress. The ban upon the Congress was removed because of economic hardships caused by the
satyagraha. Gandhi, along with other members of the Congress Working Committee, was released from prison in
January 1931.

In March 1931, the Gandhi-Irwin Pact was signed, and the government agreed to set all political prisoners free
(Although, some of the key revolutionaries were not set free and the death sentence for Bhagat Singh and his two
comrades was not taken back which further intensified the agitation against Congress not only outside it but within
the Congress itself). In return, Gandhi agreed to discontinue the civil disobedience movement and participate as the
sole representative of the Congress in the second Round Table Conference, which was held in London in September
1931. However, the conference ended in failure in December 1931. Gandhi returned to India and decided to resume
the civil disobedience movement in January 1932.

For the next few years, the Congress and the government were locked in conflict and negotiations until what became
the Government of India Act 1935 could be hammered out. By then, the rift between the Congress and the Muslim
League had become unbridgeable as each pointed the finger at the other acrimoniously. The Muslim League disputed
the claim of the Congress to represent all people of India, while the Congress disputed the Muslim League's claim to
voice the aspirations of all Muslims.

Indian independence movement 18

Elections and the Lahore resolution

The Government of India Act 1935, the voluminous and final
constitutional effort at governing British India, articulated three
major goals: establishing a loose federal structure, achieving
provincial autonomy, and safeguarding minority interests through
separate electorates. The federal provisions, intended to unite
princely states and British India at the centre, were not
implemented because of ambiguities in safeguarding the existing
privileges of princes. In February 1937, however, provincial
autonomy became a reality when elections were held; the
Congress emerged as the dominant party with a clear majority in
five provinces and held an upper hand in two, while the Muslim
League performed poorly.

Jinnah with Gandhi, 1944.

In 1939, the Viceroy Linlithgow declared India's entrance into World War II without consulting provincial
governments. In protest, the Congress asked all of its elected representatives to resign from the government. Jinnah,
the president of the Muslim League, persuaded participants at the annual Muslim League session at Lahore in 1940
to adopt what later came to be known as the Lahore Resolution, demanding the division of India into two separate
sovereign states, one Muslim, the other Hindu; sometimes referred to as Two Nation Theory. Although the idea of
Pakistan had been introduced as early as 1930, very few had responded to it. However, the volatile political climate
and hostilities between the Hindus and Muslims transformed the idea of Pakistan into a stronger demand.

Revolutionary activities

Apart from a few stray incidents, the armed rebellion against the British rulers was not organized before the
beginning of the 20th century. The Indian revolutionary underground began gathering momentum through the first
decade of 20th century, with groups arising in Bengal, Maharastra, Orissa, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, and the then

Madras Presidency including what is now called South India. More groups were scattered around India. Particularly

T221
notable movements arose in Bengal, especially around the Partition of Bengal in 1905, and in Punjab. In the

former case, it was the educated, intelligent and dedicated youth of the urban Middle Class Bhadralok community

T221
that came to form the "Classic" Indian revolutionary, while the latter had an immense support base in the rural

and Military society of the Punjab. Organisations like Jugantar and Anushilan Samiti had emerged in the 1900s

(decade). The revolutionary philosophies and movement made their presence felt during the 1905 Partition of

Bengal. Arguably, the initial steps to organize the revolutionaries were taken by Aurobindo Ghosh, his brother Barin

Ghosh, Bhupendranath Datta etc. when they formed the Jugantar party in April 1906. Jugantar was created as an

inner circle of the Anushilan Samiti which was already present in Bengal mainly as a revolutionary society in the

guise of a fitness club.

The Anushilan Samiti and Jugantar opened several branches throughout Bengal and other parts of India and recruited
young men and women to participate in the revolutionary activities. Several murders and looting were done, with
many revolutionaries being captured and imprisoned. The Jugantar party leaders like Barin Ghosh and Bagha Jatin
initiated making of explosives. Amongst a number of notable events of political terrorism were the Alipore bomb
case, the Muzaffarpur killing tried several activists and many were sentenced to deportation for life, while Khudiram
Bose was hanged. The founding of the India House and The Indian Sociologist under Shyamji Krishna Varma in
London in 1905 took the radical movement to Britain itself. On 1 July 1909, Madan Lai Dhingra, an Indian student
closely identified with India House in London shot dead William Hutt Curzon Wylie, a British M.P. in London. 1912
saw the Delhi-Lahore Conspiracy planned under Rash Behari Bose, an erstwhile Jugantar member, to assassinate the
then Viceroy of India Charles Hardinge. The conspiracy culminated in an attempt to Bomb the Viceregal procession

Indian independence movement 19

on 23 December 1912, on the occasion of transferring the Imperial Capital from Calcutta to Delhi. In the aftermath
of this event, concentrated police and intelligence efforts were made by the British Indian police to destroy the
Bengali and Punjabi revolutionary underground, which came under intense pressure for sometime. Rash Behari
successfully evaded capture for nearly three years. However, by the time that World War I opened in Europe, the
revolutionary movement in Bengal (and Punjab) had revived and was strong enough to nearly paralyse the local
administration. in 1914, Indian revolutionaries made conspiracies against British rule but the plan was failed

and many revolutionaries sacrificed their life and others were arrested and sent to the Cellular Jail (Kalapani) in

Andaman and Nicobar Islands. During the First World War, the revolutionaries planned to import arms and

T241
ammunitions from Germany and stage an armed revolution against the British.

The Ghadar Party operated from abroad and cooperated with the revolutionaries in India. This party was
instrumental in helping revolutionaries inside India catch hold of foreign arms.

After the First World War, the revolutionary activities began to slowly wane as it suffered major setbacks due to the
arrest of prominent leaders. In the 1920s, some revolutionary activists began to reorganize.

Kakori Conspiracy (9 August 1925)

In order to overturn the British Rule through arms, the idea of the robbery was conceived by Ram Prasad Bismil and
Ashfaqullah Khan who belonged to the Hindustan Republican Association (HRA, which became HSRA or
Hindustan Socialist Republican Association in 1928) that was created to carry out revolutionary activities against the
British Empire in India. The objective of the HRA was to conduct an armed revolution against the British

government. The organization needed money for the supply of weaponry, and thus Bismil decided to loot a train on

T251
one of the Northern Railway lines. The robbery plan was executed by Ram Prasad Bismil, Ashfaqulla Khan,

Rajendra Lahiri, Chandrasekhar Azad, Sachindra Bakshi, Keshab Chakravarthy, Manmathnath Gupta, Murari

r26ir27ir2Ri
Sharma (fake name of Murari Lai Gupta), Mukundi Lai (Mukundi Lai Gupta),. In this historical event 40

persons belonging to HRA were arrested and a Conspiracy case was filed in which 4 were sentenced to death and 16

others were given imprisonment varying from 2 years to life importation.

Hindustan Socialist Republican Association was formed under the leadership of Chandrasekhar Azad. Bhagat Singh

and Batukeshwar Dutt threw a bomb inside the Central Legislative Assembly on 8 April 1929 protesting against the

passage of the Public Safety Bill and the Trade Disputes Bill while raising slogans of Inqulab Zindabad, though no

one was killed or injured in the bomb incident. Bhagat Singh, Rajguru and Sukhdev immediately surrendered after

the bombing incident and a trial was conducted. Following the trial (Central Assembly Bomb Case), Bhagat Singh,

Sukhdev and Rajguru were hanged in 1931. Allama Mashriqi founded Khaksar Tehreek in order to direct

[291
particularly the Muslims towards the independence movement.

Surya Sen, along with other activists, raided the Chittagong armoury on 18 April 1930 to capture arms and
ammunition and to destroy government communication system to establish a local governance. Pritilata Waddedar
led an attack on a European club in Chittagong in 1932, while Bina Das attempted to assassinate Stanley Jackson, the
Governor of Bengal inside the convocation hall of Calcutta University. Following the Chittagong armoury raid case,
Surya Sen was hanged and several others were deported for life to the Cellular Jail in Andaman. The Bengal
Volunteers started operating in 1928. On 8 December 1930, the Benoy-Badal-Dinesh trio of the party entered the
secretariat Writers' Building in Kolkata and murdered Col. N. S. Simpson, the Inspector General of Prisons.

On 13 March 1940, Udham Singh shot Michael O'Dwyer, generally held responsible for the Amritsar Massacre, in
London. However, as the political scenario changed in the late 1930s — with the mainstream leaders considering
several options offered by the British and with religious politics coming into play — revolutionary activities
gradually declined. Many past revolutionaries joined mainstream politics by joining Congress and other parties,
especially communist ones, while many of the activists were kept under hold in different jails across the country.

Indian independence movement 20

The climax of Indian independence movement

In 1937, provincial elections were held and the Congress came to power in eight of the eleven provinces. This was a
strong indicator of the Indian people's support for complete Independence.

When World war II started, Viceroy Linlithgow had unilaterally declared India a belligerent on the side of the
Britain, without consulting the elected Indian representatives. In opposition to Linlithgow's action, the entire
Congress leadership resigned from the local government councils. However, many wanted to support the British war
effort, and indeed the British Indian Army was the largest volunteer forces, numbering 2,500,000 men during the

[30]

war.

Especially during the Battle of Britain in 1940, Gandhi resisted calls for massive civil disobedience movements that
came from within as well as outside his party, stating he did not seek India's freedom out of the ashes of a destroyed
Britain. In 1942 the Congress launched the Quit India movement. There was some violence but the Raj cracked
down and arrested tens of thousands of Congress leaders, including all the main national and provincial figures. They
were not released until the end of the war was in sight in 1945.

The independence movement saw the rise of three movements. The first of these, the Kakori conspiracy (9 August
1925) was done by the Indian youth under the leadership of Pandit Ram Prasad Bismil, second was the Azad Hind
movement led by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, saw its inception early in the war and joined with Germany and
Japan to fight Britain. . And the third one after 17 years of the first from the same date (9) saw its inception in
August 1942 which was led by Lai Bahadur Shastri and the common man resulting the failure of the Cripps'
mission to reach a consensus with the Indian political leadership over the transfer of power after the war.

Quit India Movement

The Quit India Movement (Bharat Chhodo Andolan) or the August Movement was a civil disobedience movement in
India launched on 9 August 1942 in response to Gandhi's call for immediate independence of India and against
sending Indians to World War II. He asked all the teachers to leave their school, and other Indians to leave away
their respective jobs and take part in this movement. Due to Gandhi's political influence, request was followed on a
massive proportion of the population.

At the outbreak of war, the Congress Party had during the Wardha meeting of the working-committee in September

T321
1939, passed a resolution conditionally supporting the fight against fascism, but were rebuffed when they asked

for independence in return. In March 1942, faced with an increasingly dissatisfied sub-continent only reluctantly

participating in the war, and deteriorations in the war situation in Europe and South East Asia, and with growing

dissatisfactions among Indian troops- especially in Europe- and among the civilian population in the sub-continent,

the British government sent a delegation to India under Stafford Cripps, in what came to be known as the Cripps'

Mission. The purpose of the mission was to negotiate with the Indian National Congress a deal to obtain total

co-operation during the war, in return of progressive devolution and distribution of power from the crown and the

Viceroy to elected Indian legislature. However, the talks failed, having failed to address the key demand of a

timeframe towards self-government, and of definition of the powers to be relinquished, essentially portraying an

[331
offer of limited dominion-status that was wholly unacceptable to the Indian movement. To force the British Raj to

meet its demands and to obtain definitive word on total independence, the Congress took the decision to launch the

Quit India Movement.

The aim of the movement was to bring the British Government to the negotiating table by holding the Allied War
Effort hostage. The call for determined but passive resistance that signified the certitude that Gandhi foresaw for the
movement is best described by his call to Do or Die, issued on 8 August at the Gowalia Tank Maidan in Bombay,
since renamed August Kranti Maidan (August Revolution Ground). However, almost the entire Congress leadership,
and not merely at the national level, was put into confinement less than twenty-four hours after Gandhi's speech, and
the greater number of the Congress khiland were to spend the rest of the war in jail.

Indian independence movement 21

On 8 August 1942, the Quit India resolution was passed at the Bombay session of the All India Congress Committee
(AICC). The draft proposed that if the British did not accede to the demands, a massive Civil Disobedience would be
launched. However, it was an extremely controversial decision. At Gowalia Tank, Mumbai, Gandhi urged Indians to
follow a non-violent civil disobedience. Gandhi told the masses to act as an independent nation and not to follow the
orders of the British. The British, already alarmed by the advance of the Japanese army to the India— Burma border,
responded the next day by imprisoning Gandhi at the Aga Khan Palace in Pune. The Congress Party's Working
Committee, or national leadership was arrested all together and imprisoned at the Ahmednagar Fort. They also
banned the party altogether. Large-scale protests and demonstrations were held all over the country. Workers
remained absent en masse and strikes were called. The movement also saw widespread acts of sabotage, Indian
under-ground organisation carried out bomb attacks on allied supply convoys, government buildings were set on fire,
electricity lines were disconnected and transport and communication lines were severed. The disruptions were under
control in a few weeks and had little impact on the war effort. The movement soon became a leaderless act of
defiance, with a number of acts that deviated from Gandhi's principle of non-violence. In large parts of the country,
the local underground organisations took over the movement. However, by 1943, Quit India had petered out.

All the other major parties rejected the Quit India plan, and most cooperated closely with the British, as did the
princely states, the civil service and the police. The Muslim League supported the Raj and grew rapidly in
membership, and in influence with the British.

Indian National Army

The arbitrary entry of India into the war was strongly opposed by Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, who had been
elected President of the Congress twice, in 1938 and 1939. After lobbying against participation in the war, he
resigned from Congress in 1939 and started a new party, the All India Forward Bloc. In 1940, a year after war broke
out, the British had put Bose under house arrest in Calcutta. However, he escaped and made his way through
Afghanistan to Germany to seek Axis help to raise an army to fight the British. Here, he raised with Rommel's Indian
POWs what came to be known as the Free India Legion. Bose made his way ultimately to Japanese South Asia,
where he formed what came to be known as the Azad Hind Government, a Provisional Free Indian Government in
exile, and organized the Indian National Army with Indian POWs and Indian expatriates in South-East Asia, with the
help of the Japanese. Its aim was to reach India as a fighting force that would build on public resentment to inspire
revolts among Indian soldiers to defeat the British raj.

The INA was to see action against the allies, including the British Indian
Army, in the forests of Arakan, Burma and in Assam, laying siege on Imphal
and Kohima with the Japanese 15th Army. During the war, the Andaman and
Nicobar islands were captured by the Japanese and handed over by them to
the INA. Bose renamed them Shahid (Martyr) and Swaraj (Independence).

The INA would ultimately fail, owing to disrupted logistics, poor arms and

supplies from the Japanese, and lack of support and training. [35] The

supposed death of Bose is seen as culmination of the entire Azad Hind

Movement. Following the surrender of Japan, the troops of the INA were

brought to India and a number of them charged with treason. However, Bose's

actions had captured the public imagination and also turned the inclination of

the native soldiers of the British Indian Forces from one of loyalty to the

[341 [351
crown to support for the soldiers that the Raj deemed as collaborators. 11/d^

Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose.

After the war, the stories of the Azad Hind movement and its army that came
into public limelight during the trials of soldiers of the INA in 1945 were seen

as so inflammatory that, fearing mass revolts and uprisings — not just in India, but across its empire — the British
Government forbade the BBC from broadcasting their story. Newspapers reported the summary execution of INA

Indian independence movement 22

T371
soldiers held at Red Fort. During and after the trial, mutinies broke out in the British Indian Armed forces, most

notably in the Royal Indian Navy which found public support throughout India, from Karachi to Mumbai and from

Vizag to Kolkata. Many historians have argued that the INA, and the mutinies it inspired, were strong

driving forces behind the transfer of power in 1947.

Christmas Island Mutiny

After two Japanese attacks on Christmas Island in late February and early March 1942 relations between the British
officers and their Indian troops broke down. On the night of 10 March the Indian troops led by a Sikh policemen

mutinied killing the five British soldiers and the imprisoning of the remaining 21 Europeans on the island. Later on

[441
31 March, a Japanese fleet arrived at the island and the Indians surrendered.

Independence and partition of India

On 3 June 1947, Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last British Governor-General of India, announced the partitioning
of British India into India and Pakistan. With the speedy passage through the British Parliament of the Indian
Independence Act 1947, at 11:57 on 14 August 1947 Pakistan was declared a separate nation, and at 12:02, just after
midnight, on 15 August 1947, India also became an independent nation. Violent clashes between Hindus, Sikhs and
Muslims followed. Prime Minister Nehru and Deputy Prime Minister Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel invited Mountbatten
to continue as Governor General of India. He was replaced in June 1948 by Chakravarti Rajagopalachari. Patel took
on the responsibility of bringing into the Indian Union 565 princely states, steering efforts by his "iron fist in a velvet
glove" policies, exemplified by the use of military force to integrate Junagadh and Hyderabad state (Operation Polo)
into India. On the other hand Pandit Jawahar Lai Nehru kept the issue of Kashmir in his hands.

The Constituent Assembly completed the work of drafting the constitution on 26 November 1949; on 26 January
1950 the Republic of India was officially proclaimed. The Constituent Assembly elected Dr. Rajendra Prasad as the
first President of India, taking over from Governor General Rajgopalachari. Subsequently India invaded and annexed
Goa and Portugal's other Indian enclaves in 1961), the French ceded Chandernagore in 1951, and Pondicherry and its
remaining Indian colonies in 1956, and Sikkim voted to join the Indian Union in 1975.

Following Independence in 1947, India remained in the Commonwealth of Nations, and relations between the UK
and India have been friendly. There are many areas in which the two countries seek stronger ties for mutual benefit,
and there are also strong cultural and social ties between the two nations. The UK has an ethnic Indian population of
over 1.6 million. In 2010, Prime Minister David Cameron described Indian — British relations as the "New Special
Relationship".

Notes

[I] Chandra 1989, p. 26
[2] Chandra 1989, p. 521
[3] Heehs 1998, p. 9

[4] The English colonial empire, including the territories and trading posts in Asia, came under British control following the union of England

and Scotland in 1707.
[5] Heehs 1998, pp. 9-10
[6] Heehs 1998, pp. 11-12

[7] http://en.wikipedia.Org/wiki/Mangal_Pandey#Consequences

[8] John R. McLane, "The Decision to Partition Bengal in 1905," Indian Economic and Social History Review, July 1965, 2#3, pp 221-237
[9] Jalal, Ayesha (1994) The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan. Cambridge University Press. ISBN

978-0-521-45850-4
[10] Official website, Government of Pakistan. "The Statesman: Jinnah's differences with the Congress" (http://web.archive.org/web/

20060127234847/http://www. pakistan. gov. pk/Quaid/politician7. htm). Archived from the original (http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/

Quaid/politician7.htm) on 2006-01-27. . Retrieved 2006-04-20.

[II] Gupta 1997, p. 12

[12] Popplewell 1995, p. 201

Indian independence movement

23

[13
[14
[15
[16
[17
[18
[19

[20
[21
[22
[23
[24
[25

[26
[27
[28
[29
[30

[31

[32

[33

[34

Lawrence James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) pp 439-518

James, Raj: The Making and Unmaking of British India (2000) pp 459-60, 519-20

Denis Judd, Empire: The British Imperial Experience From 1765 To The Present (pp 226-4 11998)

Nigel Collett, The Butcher of Amritsar: General Reginald Dyer (2006)

Nick Lloyd, The Amritsar Massacre: The Untold Story of One Fateful Day (201 1)

Derek Sayer, "British Reaction to the Amritsar Massacre 1919-1920," Past & Present, May 1991, Issue 131, pp 130-164

Dennis Judd, "The Amritsar Massacre of 1919: Gandhi, the Raj and the Growth of Indian Nationalism, 1915-39," in Judd, Empire: The
British Imperial Experience from 1765 to the Present (1996) pp 258- 72

Sankar Ghose, Mahatma Gandhi (1991) p. 107

Sanjay Paswan and Pramanshi Jaideva, Encyclopaedia of Dalits in India (2003) p. 43

Fraser 1977, p. 257

Banglapedia article (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/J_0130.htm) by Mohammad Shah

Rowlatt Report (§109-110); First Spark of Revolution by A.C. Guha, pp. 424-34.

N.P. Shankaranarayana Rao "A shfaqulla Khan: The immortal revolutionary" (http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fdec2000/fl51220001.
html) pib.nic.in. Accessed 1 February 2007

Dr. Mahaur Bhagwandas Kakori Shaheed Smriti 1977 Lucknow Kakori Shaheed Ardhshatabdi Samaroh Samiti page 30

Sharma Vidyarnav Yug Ke Devta: Bismil Aur Ashfaq 2004 Delhi Praveen Prakashan page 1 18 ISBN 81-7783-078-3

'Krant'M.L.Verma Sarfaroshi Ki Tamanna (Part-1) 1997 Delhi Praveen Prakashan page 35

Khaksar Tehrik Ki Jiddo Juhad Volume 1. Author Khaksar Sher Zaman

Roy, Kaushik, "Military Loyalty in the Colonial Context: A Case Study of the Indian Army during World War II," Journal of Military
History (2009) 73#2 pp 144-172

Dr.'Krant'M.L.Verma Swadhinta Sangram Ke Krantikari Sahitya Ka Itihas (Vol-2) p. 559

"The Congress and The Freedom Movement" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20070811001411/http://www.aicc.org.in/
the_congress_and_the_freedom_movement.htm#the). Indian National Congress. Archived from the original (http://www.aicc.org.in/
the_congress_and_the_freedom_movement.htm#the) on 2007-08-11. . Retrieved 2007-09-24.

Culture and Combat in the Colonies. The Indian Army in the Second World War. Tarak Barkawi. J Contemp History. 41(2),
325-355.pp:332

Edwardes, Michael, The Last Years of British India, Cleveland, World Pub. Co., 1964, p. 93.

The Government of India had hoped, by prosecuting members of the INA, to reinforce the morale of the
Indian army. It succeeded only in creating unease, in making the soldiers feel slightly ashamed that they
themselves had supported the British. If Bose and his men had been on the right side — and all India
now confirmed that they were — then Indians in the Indian army must have been on the wrong side. It
slowly dawned upon the Government of India that the backbone of the British rule, the Indian army,
might now no longer be trustworthy. The ghost of Subhas Bose, like Hamlet's father, walked the
battlements of the Red Fort (where the INA soldiers were being tried), and his suddenly amplified figure
overawed the conference that was to lead to independence.

[35] Encyclopaedia Britannica. Indian National army (http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-93 1 1795). After returning to India the veterans
of the INA posed a difficult problem for the British government. The British feared that a public trial for treason on the part of the INA
members might embolden anti-British sentiment and erupt into widespread protest and violence. Eminem came and danced. URL Accessed on
19 August 06.

[36] Mutinies (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/europe/3684288.stm) (last section).

[37] Many I.N. A. men already executed (http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/specials/Netaji/images/nov_2_45.gif), Lucknow. The
Hindustan Times, 2 November 1945. URL Accessed ll-Aug-06.

[38] Legacy and assessment of the effects of the mutiny.

[39] Consequences of the I.N. A. Trials

[40] Tribune India (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060212/spectrum/main2.htm), accessed on 17-Jul-2006

[41] "RIN mutiny gave a jolt to the British" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2006/20060212/spectrum/main2.htm) by Dhanjaya Bhat, The
Tribune, 12 February 2006, retrieved 17 July 2006

[42] Majumdar, R.C., Three Phases of India's Struggle for Freedom, Bombay, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan, 1967, pp. 58—59.

[43] R.C. Majumdar. History of the Freedom Movement in India. ISBN 0-8364-2376-3, reprint. Calcutta, Firma KLM, 1997, vol. III.

[44] http ://www. Christmas. net. au/history. html

[45] Nelson, Dean (7 July 2010). "Ministers to build a new 'special relationship' with India" (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/newstopics/
politics/conservative/7877719/Ministers-to-build-a-new-special-relationship-with-India.html). The Daily Telegraph. .

Indian independence movement 24

References

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ISBN 1-56836-127-0.

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Indian independence movement 25

Further reading

Brown, Judith M. Gandhi's Rise to Power: Indian Politics 1915-1922 (Cambridge South Asian Studies) (1974)

Brown, Judith M., 'Gandhi and Civil Resistance in India, 1917-47', in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash

(eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present.

Oxford & New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. ISBN 978-0-19-955201-6.

Chandra, Bipan. India's Struggle for Independence 2012)

Jalal, Ayesha. The Sole Spokesman: Jinnah, the Muslim League and the Demand for Pakistan (Cambridge South

Asian Studies) (1994)

Majumdar, R.C.. History of the Freedom movement in India. ISBN 0-8364-2376-3.

Gandhi, Mohandas (1993). An Autobiography : The Story of My Experiments With Truth. Boston: Beacon Press.

ISBN 0-8070-5909-9.

Sofri, Gianni (1995—1999). Gandhi and India: A Century in Focus. Janet Sethre Paxia (translator) (English

edition translated from the Italian ed.). Gloucestershire: The Windrush Press. ISBN 1-900624-12-5.

Gopal, Sarvepalli. Jawaharlal Nehru - Volume One: 1889 - 1947 - A Biography (1975), standard scholarly

biography

Seal, Anil (1968). Emergence of Indian Nationalism: Competition and Collaboration in the Later Nineteenth

Century. London: Cambridge U.P.. ISBN 0-521-06274-8.

Singh, Jaswant. Jinnah: India, Partition, Independence (2010)

Wolpert, Stanley A. Jinnah of Pakistan (2005)

Wolpert, Stanley A. Gandhi's Passion: The Life and Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi (2002)

External links

• Muslim freedom martyrs of India (http://twocircles.net/2009oct01/muslim_freedom_martyrs_india.html) -
TCN News

• Indian Freedom Fighters (http://www.peopleforever.org/community. aspx?communityid=64) Tribute on
PeopleForever.org

• Pakistani Freedom Fighters (http://www. peopleforever.org/community. aspx?communityid=70) Tribute on
PeopleForever.org

• Allama Mashriqi (http://allama-mashriqi.8m.com/)

• Origin of Non- Violence (http://www.sikhism.com/articles/origin_non_violence.htm)

• Independence movement (http://www.freeindia.org/dynamic/)

• Mahatma Gandhi (http://web.mahatma.org.in/flash.html)

• Indian Government (http://goidirectory.nic.in/)

• Raja Mahendapratap (http://www.rajamahendrapratap.com)

• Timeline of Indian independence movement (http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/freedom/timeline.htm)

Pakistan Movement

26

Pakistan Movement

The Pakistan Movement or Tehrik-e-Pakistan (Urdu: Sjj»s
5I1— 51) refers to the successful historical movement against British
Raj and Indian Congress to have an independent Muslim state
named Pakistan created from the separation of the north-western
region of the Indian subcontinent, partitioned within or outside the
British Indian Empire. It had its origins in the United Provinces of
Agra and Oudh (present day Uttar Pradesh). Muslims there were a
minority, yet their elite had a disproportionate amount of
representation in the civil service and a strong degree of cultural
and literary influence. The idea of Pakistan spread from Northern
India through the Muslim diaspora of this region, and spread
outwards to the Muslim communities of the rest of India. This
movement was led by lawyer Muhammad Ali Jinnah, along with
other prominent founding fathers of Pakistan including Allama
Iqbal, Liaqat Ali Khan, Muhammad Zafarullah Khan, Aga Khan
III, Fatima Jinnah, Bahadur Yar Jung, Maulana Mohammad Ali
Jauhar, Chaudhry Khaliquzzaman, A.K. Fazlul Huq, Sardar Abdur
Rab Nishtar, Jogendra Nath Mandal, Victor Turner, Ra'ana
Liaquat Ali Khan, and Dr. Sir Ziauddin Ahmed.

The movement ultimately achieved success in 1947, when part of
northwest India was partitioned, granted independence and
renamed Pakistan.

Mohammad Ali Jinnah (1876-1948) was an ideological
and political leader of the Pakistan Movement.

History of the movement

[2] [3]

Minority Muslims

The 1882 Local Self-Government Act had

already troubled Syed Ahmed Khan. When,

in 1906, the British announced their

intention to establish Legislative Councils,

Muhsin al-Mulk, the secretary of both the

All India Muhammadan Educational

Conference and MAO College, hoped to

win a separate Legislative Council for

Muslims by making correspondence to

several prominent Muslims in different

regions of the sub-continent and organising

a delegation led by Aga Khan III to meet

with Viceroy Lord Minto, [4][5][6][7] a deal to

which Minto agreed because it appeared to assist the British divide and rule strategy.. The delegation consisted of 35

members, who each represented their respective region proportionately, mentioned hereunder.

The Muslim League Governing Council at the Lahore session. The woman wearing

the black cloak is Muhatarma Amjadi Banu Begum, the wife of Maulana

Mohammad Ali Jauhar, a prominent Muslim League leader. Begum was a leading

representative of the UP's Muslim women during the years of the Pakistan

Movement.

Pakistan Movement

27

1. Sir Aga Khan III. (Head of the delegation);
(Bombay). 2. Nawab Mohsin-ul-Mulk. (Aligarh). 3.
Nawab Waqar-ul-Mulk. (Muradabad). 4. Maulvi
Hafiz Hakim Ajmal Khan. (Delhi). 5. Maulvi Syed
Karamat Husain. (Allahabad). 6. Maulvi Sharifuddin
(Patna). 7. Nawab Syed Sardar Ali Khan (Bombay).
8. Syed Abdul Rauf. (Allahabad). 9. Maulvi
Habiburrehman Khan. (Aligarh). 10. Sahibzada
Aftab Ahmed Khan. (Aligarh). 11. Abdul Salam
Khan. (Rampur). 12. Rais Muhammed Ahtasham Ali.
(Lukhnow) 13. Khan Bahadur Muhammed
Muzammilullah Khan. (Aligarh). 14. Haji
Muhammed Ismail Khan. (Aligarh). 15. Shehzada
Bakhtiar Shah. (Calcutta). 16. Malik Umar Hayat
Khan Tiwana. (Shahpur). 17. Khan Bahadur
Muhammed Shah Deen. (Lahore). 18. Khan Bahadur
Syed Nawab Ali Chaudhary. (Memon Singh). 19.
Nawab Bahadur Mirza Shuja'at Ali Baig.
(Murshidabad). 20. Nawab Nasir Hussain Khan
Bahadur. (Patna). 21. Khan Bahadur Syed Ameer
Hassan Khan. (Calcutta). 22. Syed Muhammed
Imam. (Patna). 23. Nawab Sarfaraz Hussain Khan
Bahadur. (Patna). 24. Maulvi Rafeeuddin Ahmed.
(Bombay). 25. Khan Bahadur Ahmed Muhaeeuddin.
(Madras). 26. Ibraheem Bhai Adamjee Pirbhai.
(Bombay). 27. Maulvi Abdul Raheem. (Calcutta). 28.
Syed Allahdad Shah. (Khairpur). 29. Maulana H. M.
Malik. (Nagpur). 30. Khan Bahadur Col. Abdul
Majeed Khan. (Patiala). 31. Khan Bahadur Khawaja
Yousuf Shah. (Amritsar). 32. Khan Bahadur Mian
Muhammad Shafi. (Lahore). 33. Khan Bahadur
Shaikh Ghulam Sadiq. (Amritsar). 34. Syed
Nabiullah. (Allahabad). 35. Khalifa Syed

H.H. THE ASA KHAN

Aga Khan III in 1936.

Muhammed Khan Bahadur. (Patna)

[8]

Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk.(left) who organized the Simla deputation, with

Sir Syed Ahmed Khan (Centre), Sir Syed's son Justice Syed Mahmood

(extreme right). Syed Mahmood was the first Muslim to serve as a High

Court judge in the British Raj.

For Jinnah, Islam laid a cultural base for an ideology

of ethnic nationalism whose objective was to gather the Muslim community in order to defend the Muslim
minorities. Jinnah's representation of minority Muslims was quite apparent in 1928, when in the All-Party Muslim
Conference, he was ready to swap the advantages of separate electorates for a quota of 33% of seats at the Centre.
He maintained his views at the Round Table Conferences, while the Muslims of Punjab and Bengal were vying for a
much more decentralized political setup. Many of their requests were met in the 1935 Government of India Act.
Jinnah and the Muslim League played a peripheral role at the time and in 1937 could manage to gather only 5% of
the Muslim vote. Jinnah refused to back down and went ahead with his plan. He presented the two-nation theory in

the now famous Lahore Resolution in March 1940, seeking a separate Muslim state

[9]

The idea of a separate state had first been introduced by Allama Iqbal in his speech in December 1930 as the
President of the Muslim League. The state that he visualized included only Punjab, Sindh, North West Frontier
Province (NWFP), and Balochistan. Three years later, the name Pakistan was proposed in a declaration in 1933 by

Pakistan Movement 28

Choudhary Rahmat Ali, a University of Cambridge graduate. Again, Bengal was left out of the proposal.

In his book Idea of Pakistan, Stephen P. Cohen writes on the influence of South Asian Muslim nationalism on the
Pakistan movement:

"It begins with a glorious precolonial state empire when the Muslims of South Asia were politically united and
culturally, civilizationally, and strategically dominant. In that era, ethnolinguistic differences were subsumed
under a common vision of an Islamic-inspired social and political order. However, the divisions among
Muslims that did exist were exploited by the British, who practiced divide and rule politics, displacing the
Mughals and circumscribing other Islamic rulers. Moreover, the Hindus were the allies of the British, who
used them to strike a balance with the Muslims; many Hindus, a fundamentally insecure people, hated
Muslims and would have oppressed them in a one-man, one-vote democratic India. The Pakistan freedom
movement united these disparate pieces of the national puzzle, and Pakistan was the expression of the national
will of India's liberated Muslims. "

Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

Further information: Provincial Assembly of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa

In NWFP, the Muslim League faced its hardest challenge yet. It had intense competition from Khan Abdul Ghaffar
Khan dubbed as the "Frontier Gandhi" due to his efforts in following in the footsteps of Gandhi. The popularity of
the Congress, along with the strong Paktoon identity created by Ghaffar Khan in the cultural and the political arenas
made life hard for the Muslim League. With the support of Ghaffar Khan, the Congress was able to contain the
Muslim League to the non-Pakhtoon areas, particularly, the Hazara region. The Muslim League could only manage
to win 17 seats, against the 30 won by Congress, in the 1946 elections.

Conclusion

Further information: Partition of India and Indian Independence Act 1947

Muslim nationalism became evident in the provinces where the Muslim minorities resided as they faced social and
political marginalization. The desire of the significant Muslim minorities to for self government and self
determination, became obvious when a clause in the Lahore Resolution which stated that "constituent units (of the
states to come) shall be autonomous and sovereign" was not respected. The Two-Nation Theory became more and
more obvious during the congress rule. In 1946, the Muslim majorities agreed to the idea of Pakistan, as a response
to Congress's one sided policies, which were also the result of leaders like Jinnah leaving the party in favour

of Muslim League, winning in seven of the 1 1 provinces. Prior to 1938, Bengal with 33 million Muslims had only
ten representatives, less than the United Provinces of Agra and Oudh, which were home to only seven million
Muslims. Thus the creation of Pakistan became inevitable and the British had no choice but to create two separate
nations, Pakistan and India, in 1947.

According to Pakistan Studies curriculum, Muhammad bin Qasim is often referred to as the first Pakistani.
Muhammad Ali Jinnah also acclaimed the Pakistan movement to have started when the first Muslim put a foot in the
Gateway of Islam.

Non-Muslims contribution and efforts

Jinnah's vision also benefited the Hindus, Sikhs, Parsis, Jews and Christians existed lived in the Muslim dominated

[22] [231

regions of undivided India. Most notable and extremely influential Hindu figure in Pakistan Movement was

F241
Jogendra Nath Mandal from Bengal, and Jagannath Azad from the Urdu-speaking belt. Mandal represented the

T221
Hindu representation calling for independent state of Pakistan, and was one of the Founding-fathers of Pakistan.

After the independence, Mandal was given ministries of Law, Justice, and Work-Force by Jinnah in Liaquat Ali

Khan's government.

Pakistan Movement

29

[251
The Christian composition also stand behind Jinnah's vision, playing a pivotal role in the movement. The notable

Christians included Sir Victor Turner and Alvin Robert Cornelius. Turner was responsible for carrying the

economic, financial planning of the country, after gaining the independence. Turner was among one of the

founding fathers of Pakistan, and guided Jinnah and Ali Khan on economic affairs, taxation and to handle the

administrative units. Alvin Robert Cornelius was elevated as Chief Justice of Lahore High Court bench by Jinnah

and served as Law secretary in Liaquat Ali Khan's government.

[26]

also played their due role for the development of Pakistan soon after its creation

The Hindu, Christian, and Parsi communities had

[25]

Timeline

1849 Annexation of the Punjab

1850 Introduction of Urdu in Punjab (almost all of west Pakistan
excluding Sindh)

1857 War of Independence

1885 Formation of the Indian National Congress

1901 Partition of Punjab

1905 Partition of Bengal

1906 Simla Deputation

1906 Founding of the All-India Muslim League

1909 Minto-Morley Reforms

1911 Annulment of the Partition of Bengal

1914-18 World War I

1916 Lucknow Pact

1919 Jallianwala Bagh Massacre

1919 Montagu-Chelmsford Reforms

1919-23 Khilafat Movement
1922-29 Hindu-Muslim Riots

1927 Delhi Muslim Proposals

1928 Nehru Report

1929 Fourteen Points of Jinnah

1930 Simon Commission Report

1930 Separation of a strong Punjabi group from congress and formation
of Majlis-e- Ahrar-ul-Islam
1930 Allama Iqbal Address

1931 Kashmir Resistance movement
1930-32 Round Table Conferences

1932 Communal Award (1932)

1933 Pakistan National Movement
1933 Now or Never Pamphlet
1935 Government of India Act
1937 Elections

1937-39 Congress Rule in 7 out of 1 1 Provinces

1937 Strong anti congress governments in Punjab and Bengal

1938 A. K. Fazlul Huq of Bengal joined Muslim League
1938 Jinah Sikandar pact

1938 Pirpur Report
1939-45 World WarH

1939 Resignation of congress ministries and non congress power
players got golden chance

1940 Pakistan Resolution

T27ir281
1940 March 19 Khaksar Massacre in Lahore

1942 Quit India Movement and non congress players further got

space

1942 Cripps' mission

1944 Gandhi - Jinnah Talks

1945 The Simla Conference

1946 The Cabinet Mission the last British effort to united India

1946 Direct Action Day in the aftermath of cabinet mission plan
1946 Interim Government installed in office

1946 Quit Kashmir Campaign as the formation of the interim
government of Azad Kashmir

1947 June 3 Partition Plan
1947 Creation of Pakistan

Pakistan Movement 30

Notable quotations

Allama Iqbal

I would like to see the Punjab, North- West Frontier Province, Sind and Baluchistan amalgamated into a single State. Self-government within

the British Empire, or without the British Empire, the formation of a consolidated North- West Indian Muslim State appears to me to be the

[29]
final destiny of the Muslims, at least of North- West India.

Choudhary Rahmat Ali

At this solemn hour in the history of India, when British and Indian statesmen are laying the foundations of a Federal Constitution for that
land, we address this appeal to you, in the name of our common heritage, on behalf of our thirty million Muslim brethren who live in Pakistan
- by which we mean the five Northern units of India, Viz: Punjab, North- West Frontier Province (Afghan Province), Kashmir, Sind and
Baluchistan - for your sympathy and support in our grim and fateful struggle against political crucifixion and complete annihilation.

Muhammad Ali Jinnah

It is extremely difficult to appreciate why our Hindu friends fail to understand the real nature of Islam and Hinduism. They are not religious in
the strict sense of the word, but are, in fact, different and distinct social orders, and it is a dream that the Hindus and Muslims can ever evolve
a common nationality, and this misconception of one Indian nation has troubles and will lead India to destruction if we fail to revise our
notions in time. The Hindus and Muslims belong to two different religious philosophies, social customs, literatures. They neither intermarry
nor interdine together and, indeed, they belong to two different civilizations which are based mainly on conflicting ideas and conceptions.
Their aspect on life and of life are different. It is quite clear that Hindus and Mussalmans derive their inspiration from different sources of
history. They have different epics, different heroes, and different episodes. Very often the hero of one is a foe of the other and, likewise, their
victories and defeats overlap. To yoke together two such nations under a single state, one as a numerical minority and the other as a majority,
must lead to growing discontent and final destruction of any fabric that may be so built for the government of such a state."

[30]

[31]

Leaders and Founding Fathers

Muhammad Ali Jinnah
Allama Muhammad Iqbal
Liaquat Ali Khan
Aga Khan III

Muhammad Zafarullah Khan
Ghulam Bhik Nairang
Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy
Khwaja Nazimuddin
Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk
Chaudhry Naseer Ahmad Malhi
Maulana Zafar Ali Khan
Jogendra Nath Mandal
Victor Turner
Ra'ana Liaquat Ali Khan
Alvin Robert Cornelius

Pakistan Movement 3 1

References

[I] "Encyclopedia of Canada's peoples - Paul R. Magocsi, Multicultural History Society of Ontario - Google Books" (http://books.google.com/
books?id=dbUuX0mnvQMC&pg=PA1028&lpg=PA1028&dq=pakistan+united+provinces&source=bl&ots=K6A5hGd_mM&
sig=-91nwMarp7cPge6v8ERSn-Xdvak&hl=en&ei=Ee6jSv7UHsSfjAeV44iJCg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&
resnum=9#v=onepage&q=&f=false). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.

[2] sherazkamran@hotmail.com, muhammad sheraz kamran, http://sherazkamran.com. "NPT - History of Pakistan Movement" (http://

nazariapak.info/pak-history/). Nazariapak.info. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[3] http://pakistanmovement.org/PakMovement.html

[4] Pakistan was inevitable p. 51-52, Author Syed Hassan Riaz, published by University Karachi. ISBN 969-404-003-5
[5] History of Pakistan Movement (1857-1947), p. 237-238, Author Prof. M. Azam Chaudhary, published by Abdullah Brothers, Urdu Bazar,

Lahore
[6] History of Pakistan and its background, p. 338. Author Syed Asghar Ali Shah Jafri, published by Evernew Book Palace, Circular road, Urdu

Bazar, Lahore.
[7] History of Pakistan, p. 58-59. Author Prof. Muhammed Khalilullah (Ex-Principal Federal Govt. Urdu College, Karachi; Former Dean Law

Faculty, University of Karachi), published by Urdu Academy Sindh, Karachi.
[8] History of Pakistan, p. 232 to 234. by Muhammed Ali Chiragh, published by Sang-e-Meel Publications, Lahore. ISBN 969-35-0413-5.
[9] "Pakistan: nationalism without a nation? - Christophe Jaffrelot - Google Boeken" (http://books. google. com/books?id=I2avL3aZzSEC&

pg=PPl&dq=Pakistan:+Nationalism+without+a+Nation?). Books.google.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[10] Shafique Ali Khan (1987), Iqbal's Concept of Separate North-west Muslim State: A Critique of His Allahabad Address of 1930,

Markaz-e-Shaoor-o-Adab, Karachi, OCLC 18970794

[II] Choudhary Rahmat Ali, (1933), Now or Never; Are We to Live or Perish Forever?, pamphlet, published 28 January
[12] The Idea of Pakistan. Stephen Philip Cohen. Washington: Brookings Institution Press, 2004.

[13] "South Asia I India state bans book on Jinnah" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/821 1038.stm). BBC News. 2009-08-20. .

Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[14] Jaswant Singh. Jinnah: India-Partition-Independence.
[15] Sarojini Naidu. Muhammad Jinnah: An Ambassador of Unity (http://www.amazon.com/Mahomed-Ali-Jinnah-ambassador-unity/dp/

B0040SYONC/ref=sr_l_fkmr0_l?ie=UTF8&qid=1287776194&sr=l-l-fkmr0). .
[16] "Lahore Resolution [1940]" (http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A043). Storyofpakistan.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[17] Muhammad Munawwar. Dimensions of Pakistan movement (http://books. google. com/books?id=IkFuAAAAMAAJ). .
[18] Yusuf Ali Chowdhury, Muhammad Asad, Nawab Sir Ziauddin Ahmed, Amir Abdullah Khan Rokhri. Pakistan Movement Activists (http://

books. google.com/books ?id=qA-fSQAACAAJ). .
[19] Sikandar Hayat. Aspects of the Pakistan movement (http://books. google. com/books ?id=iBBuAAAAMAAJ). .

[20] "History books contain major distortions" (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_30-3-2004_pg7_16). Daily Times. .
[21] "Pakistan Movement" (http://www.cybercity-online.net/pof/pakistan_movement.html). cybercity-online.net. .
[22] Heyworth-Dunne, James (1952). Pakistan: the birth of a new Muslim state (http://books.google.com/

books ?ei=F24wT7irA6iusQLmuMGTDg&id=TS4BAAAAMAAJ&dq=Pakistan+movement+and+jogendra+nath+leader&q=jogendra-l-

nath+leader#search_anchor). University of Michigan: Renaissance Bookshop, pp. 173. ISBN ASIN: B000N7G1MG. .
[23] Tai Yong Tan, Gyanes Kugaisya (2000). The Aftermath of partition in South Asia:Pakistan (http://books.google.com/

books ?id=05zEtBxk72wC&pg=PR9&dq=Pakistan+movement+and+jogendra+nath+leader&hl=en&sa=X&

ei=oW0wT7qWBs7CsQK6nOWXDg&ved=0CD8Q6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=Pakistan movement and jogendra nath leader&f=false).

London, UK: Routledge Publishing Co.. pp. ix-327. ISBN 0-203-45766-8. .
[24] Sophia Ajaz. [criticalppp.com/archives/35305 "Hindus' contribution towards making of Pakistan"]. Sophia Ajaz.

criticalppp.com/archives/35305.
[25] Staff Report. "Home » Local » Christians played vital role in Pakistan Movement Christians played vital role in Pakistan Movement" (http://

www.daily.pk/christians-played-vital-role-in-pakistan-movement-5871/). Daily Pakistan. Pakistan Daily. . Retrieved 7 February 2012.
[26] Aminullah Chaudry (1999). The founding fathers (http://www.dawn.com/2011/08/07/excerpt-the-founding-fathers.html). Karachi,

Sindh Province: Oxford University Press, Karachi. ISBN 978-0-19-906171-6. .
[27] Allama Mashraqi (http://www.allamamashraqi.com/grandsonsarticles.html)

[28] http://www.allamamashraqi.com/images/The_Khaksar_Martyrs_of_March_19, _1940_by_Nasim_Yousaf.pdf
[29] Sir Muhammad Iqbal's 1930 Presidential Address (http://www.columbia.edu/itc/mealac/pritchett/00islamlinks/txt_iqbal_1930.html),

from Columbia University site
[30] "VIEW: March towards independence" (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2011\03\23\story_23-3-2011_pg3_6). Daily

Times. 2011-03-23. . Retrieved 2011-09-29.
[31] Excerpt from the Presidential Address delivered by Quaid-e-Azam at Lahore, March 22-23, 1940 (http://www.nazariapak.info/data/

quaid/statements/two-nation.asp), Nazariapak.info

Pakistan Movement 32

External links

• "Pakistan Movement Workers Trust -(Tehrik-i-Pakistan) jli~5\ tX,^j" (http://www.pakistanmovement.org).
Pakistan Movement Workers Trust's official website.

• "The Pakistan Movement" (http://www.storyofpakistan.com/timeline06.htm). Story of Pakistan website.

• "Iqbal and the Pakistan Movement" (http://www.allamaiqbal.com/person/movement/move_main.htm). Iqbal
Academy Pakistan.

• "The Pakistan Movement (Picture Gallery)" (http://www.pakistan.gov.pk/Quaid/movement_pic.htm).
Pakistan.gov.

33

Wars

34

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

The India-Pakistan War of 1947-48, sometimes known as the First Kashmir War, was fought between India and
Pakistan over the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu from 1947 to 1948. It was the first of four wars fought
between the two newly independent nations. The result of the war still affects the geopolitics of both the countries.

The war was initially fought by the forces of the princely state and tribal militias from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa and

Federally Administered Tribal Areas. Facing the assault and a Muslim revolution in the Poonch and Mirpur

area, the ruler of princely state of Kashmir and Jammu signed an Instrument of Accession to the Indian union.

Indian and Pakistani armies entered the war subsequently. The fronts solidified gradually along what came to be

[31-379
known as the Line of Control. A formal cease-fire was declared at 2359 hours on the night of 1/2 January 1949.

Background

Prior to 1815 the area now known as "Jammu and Kashmir" comprised 22 small independent states (16 Hindu and 6
Muslim) carved out of territories controlled by the Afghanistan Amir (King) combined with those of local small
rulers. These were collectively referred to as the "Punjab Hill States". These small states, ruled by Rajput kings, were
variously independent, vassals of the Mughal Empire since the time of Emperor Akbar or sometimes controlled from
Kangra state in the Himachal area. Following the decline of the Mughals, turbulence in Kangra and Gorkha
invasions, the hill states fell one by one under the dominance of the Sikhs under Ranjit Singh.

The First Anglo-Sikh War (1845—46) was fought between the Sikh Empire, which asserted sovereignty over
Kashmir, and the East India Company. In the Treaty of Lahore in 1846, the Sikhs were made to surrender the
valuable region (the Jullundur Doab) between the Beas River and Sutlej River and required to pay an indemnity of
1.2 million rupees. Because they could not readily raise this sum, the East India Company allowed the Dogra ruler
Gulab Singh to acquire Kashmir from the Sikh kingdom in exchange for making a payment of 750,000 rupees to the
East India Company. Gulab Singh became the first Maharaja of the newly formed princely state of Jammu and
Kashmir, founding a dynasty, that was to rule the state, the second-largest principality during the British Raj, until
India gained its independence in 1947.

Partition of India

Before and after the withdrawal of the British from India in 1947, the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu came
under pressure from both India and Pakistan to agree to become part of one of the newly independent countries.
According to the instruments of accession relating to the Partition of India, the rulers of princely states were to be
given the choice of either acceding to India or Pakistan. However, the Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh tried to
avoid accession to either country. Following a Muslim revolution in the Poonch and Mirpur area and an allegedly

[3]. 1 Q

Pakistani backed Pashtun tribal intervention from the Khyber Pakhtunkhwa that aimed at supporting the

r7irsi
revolution, the Maharaja asked for Indian military assistance. India set a condition that Kashmir must accede to

India for it to receive assistance. The Maharaja complied, and the Government of India recognized the accession of

the erstwhile princely state to India. Indian troops were sent to the state to defend it. The Jammu & Kashmir National

Conference volunteers aided the Indian Army in its campaign to drive out the Pathan invaders.

Pakistan was of the view that the Maharaja of Kashmir had no right to call in the Indian Army, because it held that
the Maharaja of Kashmir was not a heredity ruler, that he was merely a British appointee after the British defeated

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

35

Ranjit Singh who ruled the province before the British. There had been no such position as the "Maharaja of
Kashmir" prior to British rule. Hence Pakistan decided to take action, but the Army Chief of Pakistan General
Douglas Gracey did not send troops to the Kashmir front and refused to obey the order to do so given by Muhammad
Ali Jinnah, Governor-General of Pakistan. Gracey justified his insubordination by arguing that Indian forces
occupying Kashmir represented the British Crown and hence he could not engage in a military encounter with Indian
forces. Pakistan finally did manage to send troops to Kashmir but by then the Indian forces had taken control of
approximately two thirds of the former principality. The Gilgit and Baltistan territories were secured for Pakistan by
the Gilgit Scouts and the forces of the state of Chitral, another princely state that had acceded to Pakistan.

Stages of the war

[10]

Initial invasion

The state forces stationed in the border
regions around Muzaffarabad and Domel
were quickly defeated by tribal forces (some
state forces mutinied and joined them) and
the way to the capital was open. Rather than
advancing toward Srinagar before state
forces could regroup or be reinforced, the
invading forces remained in the captured
cities in the border region engaging in
looting and other crimes against their
inhabitants. In the Poonch valley, the
state forces retreated into towns where they
were besieged.

: Initial Invasion by
Irregular Forces:
Op GULMARG:
22-26 Oct 1947

Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October 1947 — 17 November 1947

Indian operation in the Kashmir
Valley

After the accession, India airlifted troops
and equipment to Srinagar, where they
reinforced the princely state forces,
established a defence perimeter and defeated
the tribal forces on the outskirts of the city.
The successful defence included an
outflanking manoeuvre by Indian armoured
cars. The defeated tribal forces were
pursued as far as Baramulla and Uri and
these towns were recaptured.

In the Poonch valley, tribal forces continued
to besiege state forces.

2: Indian Defence of

the Kashmir Valley:

27 Oct 1947-17 Nov

1947

High Himalayas

c i j ^Tithwa
Muzzaferabad M

J^JjEaramula ~^~ Zoji-La Pass
<Lj^Sy?J%! Srinagai
•~~Gulmarg

Kashmir Valley

Kotijjt. • Rajauri Punch Valley

Mimur'vl. n
MJhagner' 9 Akhnw

Indian defence of the Kashmir Valley 27 October 1947 — 17 November 1947

In Gilgit, the state paramilitary forces, called the Gilgit Scouts, joined the invading tribal forces, who thereby
obtained control of this northern region of the state. The tribal forces were also joined by troops from Chitral, whose

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

36

ruler, the Mehtar of Chitral, had acceded to Pakistan.

Attempted link-up at Poonch and
fall of Mirpur

Indian forces ceased pursuit of tribal forces
after recapturing Uri and Baramula, and sent
a relief column southwards, in an attempt to
relieve Poonch. Although the relief column
eventually reached Poonch, the siege could
not be lifted. A second relief column
reached Kotli, and evacuated the garrisons
of that town and others but were forced to
abandon it being too weak to defend it.
Meanwhile, Mirpur was captured by the
tribal forces on 25 November 1947.

3: Attempted link-up

at Punch

18 Nov 1947-

26 Nov 1947

Muzzaferabad

Domel •

High Himalayas

M Keran • Gurais

-^

Dras
9 Baramula f^~ Zoji-La Pass

• Gulmarg

Kashmir Valley

Rajaun Punch Valley

■Jhagner^ — ~ Akhnu

Attempted link-up at Poonch 18 November 1947 — 26 November 1947

Fall of Jhanger and attacks on
Naoshera and Uri

The tribal forces attacked and captured
Jhanger. They then attacked Naoshera
unsuccessfully, and made a series of
unsuccessful attacks on Uri. In the south a
minor Indian attack secured Chamb. By this
stage of the war the front line began to
stabilize as more Indian troops became
available.

4: Fall of Jhanger
and attacks on

Naoshera and Uri:
25 Nov 1947
- 6 Feb 1948

â– WSka

High Himalayas

;• Keran • Gurais

J-

• Kargil

Baramula f Zoji-La Pass

â–  Srinagar
Gulmarg

Kashmir Valley

/KorJi # # Rajaun Punch Valley

Mirpur ^ ~ jNaoshera

Fall of Jhanger and attacks on Naoshera and Uri 25 November 1 947 - 6 February

1948

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

37

Operation Vijay: counterattack to
Jhanger

The Indian forces launched a counterattack
in the south recapturing Jhanger and
Rajauri. In the Kashmir Valley the tribal
forces continued attacking the Uri garrison.
In the north Skardu was brought under siege
by the Gilgit scouts.

5: Op Vijay:

Counterattack to

Jhanger

7 Feb 1948

-31 Mar 1948

High Himalayas

X-Tith»aii» K ='=" « <=ras * Kar » il

Muzzaferabad r ~-

Domel# ~ i • Dras

I Baramula (^~ Zoji-La Pass

I Srinagar

1 Gulmarg

Kashmir Valley

/Kotli # « Rajauri Punch Valley

Mitpur V Naoshera

[_• •J*

*— ]hagner?=r Akhnur

Operation Vijay: counterattack to Jhanger 7 February 1948 - 1 May 1948

Indian Spring Offensive

The Indians held onto Jhanger against
numerous counterattacks, who were
increasingly supported by regular Pakistani
Forces. In the Kashmir Valley the Indians
attacked, recapturing Tithwail. The Gilgit
scouts made good progress in the High
Himalayas sector, infiltrating troops to bring
Leh under siege, capturing Kargil and
defeating a relief column heading for
Skardu.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

38

Operations Gulab and Eraze

The Indians continued to attack in the
Kashmir Valley sector driving north to
capture Keran and Gurais (Operation
Eraze) " . They also repelled a

counterattack aimed at Tithwal. In the
Jammu region, the forces besieged in
Poonch broke out and temporarily linked up
with the outside world again. The Kashmir
State army was able to defend Skardu from
the Gilgit Scouts impeding their advance
down the Indus valley towards Leh. In
August the Chitral Forces under
Mata-ul-Mulk besieged Skardu and with the
help of artillery were able to take Skardu.
This freed the Gilgit Scouts to push further into Ladakh.

7: Operation Gulab

and Erase

19 May 1948

-14 Aug 1948

High Himalayas

• Ksrgil 22-May-48
" Dras 6-Jun-4B • Khalatse19~Jul-48

Indian Spring Offensive 1 May 1948 - 19 May 1948

S: Operation Duck

15 August 1948

-31 October 194S

High Himalayas

•^Tithwail* Keran * Gurais
Muzzaferabadf# j-^ 5-Sep-48 (Duck;

• Ksrgil

Baramula
# uri â–  Srinagai

i_# Dras
-f^Zoji-Ls

• Gulmarg

-$ Li

Kashmir Valley

Operation Bison

During this time the front began to settle

down. The siege of Poonch continued. An

unsuccessful attack was launched by 77

Parachute Brigade (Brig Atal) to capture

Zoji La pass. Operation Duck, the earlier

epithet for this assault, was renamed as

Operation Bison by Cariappa. M5 Stuart

light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in

dismantled conditions through Srinagar and

winched across bridges while two field

companies of the Madras Sappers converted

the mule track across Zoji La into a jeep

track. The surprise attack on 1 November by

the brigade with armour supported by two

regiments of 25 pounders and a regiment of 3.7 inch guns, forced the pass and pushed the tribal/Pakistani forces back

to Matayan and later Dras. The brigade linked up on 24 November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from Leh

T121" 103-127

while their opponents eventually withdrew northwards toward Skardu.

Kotli # * Rajauri Punch Valley

Mirpur Naoshera

\» • •

hagner Akhnur

v •/

Chamb

Operation Duck 15 August 1948 - 1 November 1948

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

39

Operation Easy; Poonch link-up

The Indians now started to get the upper
hand in all sectors. Poonch was finally
relieved after a siege of over a year. The
Gilgit forces in the High Himalayas, who
had previously made good progress, were
finally defeated. The Indians pursued as far
as Kargil before being forced to halt due to
supply problems. The Zoji La pass was
forced by using tanks (which had not been
thought possible at that altitude) and Dras
was recaptured.

9: Operation Easy:

Punch Link-up

1 November 1948

-26 November 1948

â– fithwaiP Kelan * Gurals 15-Nov-

m «. i. j^Tithwair Kelan * Gurals 15-NoMS
Muzzaferabad |# _JS\_

Domel • ">Y< ,-^Dras

\ Baramula ( Zoji-L^ Pass

24-NOV-48
• ^Kargil

High Himalayas

• Gulmarg
> Kashmir Valley

' v « Rajauri Punch Valley

Naoshera

{• • •

^--Jhagner Akhnur

Operation Easy. Poonch link-up 1 November 1948 - 26 November 1948

10: Moves up to

Cease Fire

27 November 1948

-31 December 1948

Muzzaferabad

Domel •

High Himalayas

• Kargil

j • Dras
Baramula f~ Zoji-La Pass
I Srinagar
• Gulmarg

Kashmir Valley
Punch Valley

Moves up to cease-fire

At this stage Indian Prime Minister
Jawaharlal Nehru decided to ask UN to
intervene. A UN cease-fire was arranged for
the 31 December 1948. A few days before
the cease-fire the Pakistanis launched a
counter attack, which cut the road between
Uri and Poonch. After protracted
negotiations a cease-fire was agreed to by
both countries, which came into effect. The
terms of the cease-fire as laid out in a
United Nations resolution of August 13,

1948, were adopted by the UN on January 5,

1949. This required Pakistan to withdraw its
forces, both regular and irregular, while

allowing India to maintain minimum strength of its forces in the state to preserve law and order. On compliance of
these conditions a plebiscite was to be held to determine the future of the territory. In all, 1,500 soldiers died on each
side during the war and Pakistan was able to acquire roughly two-fifths of Kashmir, including five of the fourteen
eight thousanders plus peaks of the world, while India maintained the remaining three fifths of Kashmir, including
the most populous and fertile regions.

Moves up to cease-fire. 27 November 1948 - 31 December 1948

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947 40

Military awards
Battle honours

After the war, a total of number of 1 1 battle honours and one theatre honour were awarded to units of the Indian
Army, the notable amongst which are:

• Jammu and Kashmir 1947-48 (theatre honour) • Naoshera • Srinagar

• Gurais • Punch • Tithwal

• Kargil • Rajouri • Zoji La

Gallantry awards

For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries.
Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider:

India

• Major Som Nath Sharma (Posthumous)

• Lance Naik Karam Singh

• Second Lieutenant Rama Raghoba Rane

• Jadu Nath Singh

• Company Havildar Major Piru Singh Shekhawat

Pakistan

• Captain Muhammad Sarwar Shaheed

Notes

[I] Kashmir. (201 1). In Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved from http://www.britannica.eom/EBchecked/topic/3 12908/Kashmir (http://
www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/312908/Kashmir/214223/The-Kashmir-problem#ref673547)

[2] Lamb, Alastair (1997), Incomplete partition: the genesis of the Kashmir dispute 1947-1948, Roxford, ISBN=0-907 129-08-0 } }

[3] Prasad, S.N.; Dharm Pal (1987). History of Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948. New Delhi: History Department, Ministry of

Defence, Government of India, (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited), pp. 418..
[4] Hutchison, J.; Vogel, Jean Philippe (1933). History of the Panjah Hill States (http://books. google.com/books ?id=5uXgQwAACAAJ).

Superint., Gov. Print., Punjab. . Retrieved 23 October 2011.
[5] Srinagar (http://www.bl.Uk/onlinegallery/onlineex/apac/photocoll/g/019pho000000394u00076000.html) www.collectbritain.co.uk.
[6] Article 2.4 of the Indian Independence Act.

[7] Kashmir-konflikten. (2011-10-18) I Store norske leksikon. Taken from (http://snl.no/Kashmir-konflikten)
[8] Norwegian Broadcasting Corporation: Kashmir-konflikten (http://www.nrk.nO/nyheter/verden/l.461250)
[9] My Life and Times (http://books.google.com/books?id=KNFJKap8YxwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=My+life+and+times+By+

Sayyid+MA«r+QADsim&source=bl&ots=QelHViveYB&sig=59zRr-XTYB8srl0zs3A_CyfCabI&hl=en&

ei=OAnCTM3rKsT48Aa7rajhCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=l&ved=0CBMQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=false).

Allied Publishers Limited. . Retrieved 2010-07-01.
[10] Ministry of Defence, Government of India. Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948. (1987). Thomson Press (India) Limited, New

Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.

[II] I Indo-Pakistani War, 1947-1949 By Tom Cooper (http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_321.shtml) Air Combat Information
Group October 29, 2003

[12] Sinha, Lt. Gen. S.K. (1977). Operation Rescue: Military! Operations in Jammu & Kashmir 1947-49 (http://books.google.co.in/

books?id=SMwBAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Vision Books, pp. 174. ISBN 81-7094-012-5. . Retrieved 4 August 2010.
[13] Resolution adopted by the United Nations Commission for India and Pakistan on 13 August 1948 (http://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/

intrel/uncoml.htm)
[14] Global security (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1947.htm)
[15] Singh, Sarbans (1993). Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757 - 1971 (http://books.google.com/books/about/

Battle_honours_of_the_Indian_Army_1757_l.html?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Vision Books, pp. 227-238. ISBN 81-7094-115-6. .

Retrieved 3 November 201 1.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1 947 4 1

Bibliography

Major sources

• Ministry of Defence, Government of India. Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948. (1987). Thomson
Press (India) Limited, New Delhi. This is the Indian Official History.

• Lamb, Alastair. Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy, 1846-1990. (1991). Roxford Books. ISBN 0-907129-06-4.

• Praval, K.C. The Indian Army After Independence. (1993). Lancer International, ISBN 1-897829-45-0

• Sen, Maj Gen L.P. Slender Was The Thread: The Kashmir confrontation 1947-1948. (1969). Orient Longmans
Ltd, New Delhi.

• Vas, Lt Gen. E. A. Without Baggage: A personal account of the Jammu and Kashmir Operations 1947-1949.
(1987). Natraj Publishers Dehradun. ISBN 81-85019-09-6.

Other sources

• Cohen, Lt Col Maurice. Thunder over Kashmir. (1955). Orient Longman Ltd. Hyderabad

• Hinds, Brig Gen SR. Battle ofZoji La. (1962). Military Digest, New Delhi.

• Sandhu, Maj Gen Gurcharan. The Indian Armour: History Of The Indian Armoured Corps 1941-1971. (1987).
Vision Books Private Limited, New Delhi, ISBN 81-7094-004-4.

• Singh, Maj K Brahma. History of Jammu and Kashmir Rifles (1820—1956). (1990). Lancer International New
Delhi, ISBN 81-7062-091-0.

'The template Jammu and Kashmir freedom movement is being eon side red for deletion.'

Partition of India

Kashmir conflict

42

Admin, by Claimed by

Jammu & Kashmir India Pakistan
Azad Kashmir Pakistan India

Northern Areas Pakistan India

Siachen Glacier India Pakistan
AksaJ Chin China India

Shaksam Valley China India

The disputed areas of the region of Kashmir. India claims the entire erstwhile

princely state of Jammu and Kashmir based on an instrument of accession signed in

1947. Pakistan claims all areas of the erstwhile state except for those claimed by

China. China claims the Shaksam Valley and Aksai Chin.

The Kashmir conflict (Hindi: +:>[4k ^R,
Urdu: j~^iS D1a~~o) is a territorial dispute
between India and Pakistan over the
Kashmir region, the northwestern most
region of South Asia.

India claims the entire state of Jammu and
Kashmir and as of 2010, administers
approximately 43% of the region, including
most of Jammu, the Kashmir Valley,
Ladakh, and the Siachen Glacier. India's
claims are contested by Pakistan, which
controls approximately 37% of Kashmir,
namely Azad Kashmir and the northern
areas of Gilgit and Baltistan.

India has officially stated that it believes

that Kashmir is an integral part of India,

though the Prime Minister of India,

Manmohan Singh, stated after the 2010

Kashmir Unrest that his government is

willing to grant autonomy within the purview of Indian constitution to Kashmir if there is consensus on this issue

Pakistan maintains that Kashmir is the "jugular vein of Pakistan" and a currently disputed territory whose final

status must be determined by the people of Kashmir. China states that Aksai Chin is a part of China and does not

recognize the addition of Aksai Chin to the Kashmir region. Certain Kashmiri independence groups believe that

Kashmir should be independent of both India and Pakistan.

India and Pakistan have fought at least three wars over Kashmir, including the Indo-Pakistani Wars of 1947, 1965
and 1999. India and Pakistan have also been involved in several skirmishes over the Siachen Glacier.

Since 1987, a disputed State election has resulted in some of the state's legislative assembly forming militant
wings, creating a catalyst for insurgency. The Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir has been the site of

conflict between the Indian Armed Forces, militants, and separatists. India has furnished documentary evidence to
the United Nations that these militants are supported by Pakistan, leading to a ban on some terrorist organisations,
which Pakistan has yet to enforce. The turmoil in Jammu and Kashmir has resulted in thousands of deaths, but has
become less deadly in recent years. There have been protest movements in Indian Administered Kashmir since

1989. The movements were created to voice Kashmir's disputes and grievances with the Indian government,
specifically the Indian Military. Elections held in 2008 were generally regarded as fair by the United Nations

High Commissioner for Refugees, had a high voter turnout in spite of calls by militants for a boycott, and led to the
pro-India Jammu & Kashmir National Conference forming the government in the state. According to Voice of

America, many analysts have interpreted the high voter turnout in this election as a sign that the people of Kashmir

1121

have endorsed Indian rule in the state. However Sajjad Lone, a prominent separatist leader in Kashmir, claims

[l]

Kashmir conflict 43

ri2i
that "the high turnout should not be taken as a sign that Kashmiris no longer want independence. Altaf Ahmad, a

separatist activist of the Jammu and Kashmir Liberation Front, said, "The whole of Kashmir nation is standing

against these elections, because these elections are not as India claims in the United Nations, that people of Kashmir

[131
are representing themselves in these elections, that this is the self determination," In 2009 and 2010 unrest

erupted again.

Timeline
Early history

According to folk etymology, the name "Kashmir" means "desiccated land" (from the Sanskrit: Ka = water and
shimeera = desiccate). In the Rajatarangini, a history of Kashmir written by Kalhana in the mid-12th century, it is
stated that the valley of Kashmir was formerly a lake. According to Hindu mythology, the lake was drained by the
saptarishi or sage, Kashyapa, son of Marichi, son of Brahma, by cutting the gap in the hills at Baramulla
(Varaha-mula) . When Kashmir had been drained, Kashyapa asked Brahmans to settle there. This is still the local
tradition, and in the existing physical condition of the country, we may see some ground for the story which has
taken this form. The name of Kashyapa is by history and tradition connected with the draining of the lake, and the
chief town or collection of dwellings in the valley was called Kashyapa-pura, which has been identified with

ri4i

Kaspapyros of Hecataeus (apud Stephanus of Byzantium) and Kaspatyros of Herodotus (3.102, 4.44). Kashmir is
also believed to be the country meant by Ptolemy's Kaspeiria.

However an earlier and well known recorded reference can be found in the writings of a Tibetan Buddhist monk in
the 6th Century. Hsien Tsang referred to a state called 'Kash-mi-lo' that had existed in the 1st century.

In the 18th century, Kashmir was ruled by the Pashtun Durrani Empire. In 1819, Kashmir was conquered by the Sikh
ruler Ranjit Singh. Following the First Anglo-Sikh War in 1845 and 1846, Kashmir was first ceded by the Treaty of
Lahore to the East India Company, and shortly after sold by the Treaty of Amritsar to Gulab Singh, Raja of Jammu,
who thereafter was given the title Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir. From then until the Partition of India in 1947,
Kashmir was ruled by the Hindu Maharajas of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, although the majority of the
population were Muslim, except in the Jammu and Ladakh region.

Partition and dispute

In 1947, British rule in India ended with the creation of two new nations: the Union of India and the Dominion of
Pakistan, while British suzerainty over the 562 Indian princely states ended. According to the Indian Independence
Act 1947, "the suzerainty of His Majesty over the Indian States lapses, and with it, all treaties and agreements in
force at the date of the passing of this Act between His Majesty and the rulers of Indian States", so the states were
left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the
princely states, had a predominantly Muslim population, while having a Hindu ruler (Maharaja Hari Singh.) On
partition Pakistan expected Kashmir to be annexed to it.

ri7i

In October 1947, Muslim revolutionaries in western Kashmir and Pakistani tribals from Dir entered Kashmir,
intending to liberate it from Dogra rule. Unable to withstand the invasion, the Maharaja signed the Instrument of
Accession on 25 October 1947 that was accepted by the government of India on 27 October 1947.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

After rumours that the Maharaja supported the annexation of Kashmir by India, militant Muslim revolutionaries

ri7i

from western Kashmir and Pakistani tribesmen made rapid advances into the Baramulla sector. Maharaja Hari
Singh of Kashmir asked the government of India to intervene. However, India and Pakistan had signed an agreement
of non-intervention. Although tribal fighters from Pakistan had entered Jammu and Kashmir, there was no iron-clad
legal evidence to unequivocally prove that Pakistan was officially involved. It would have been illegal for India to

Kashmir conflict

44

unilaterally intervene in an open, official capacity unless Jammu and Kashmir officially joined the Union of India, at
which point it would be possible to send in its forces and occupy the remaining parts.

The Maharaja desperately needed military assistance when the Pakistani tribals reached the outskirts of Srinagar.
Before their arrival into Srinagar, India argued that the Maharaja must complete negotiations for ceding Jammu and
Kashmir to India in exchange for receiving military aid. The agreement which ceded Jammu and Kashmir to India

was signed by the Maharaja and Lord Mountbatten of Burma. In Jammu and Kashmir, National Conference

r2ii
volunteers worked with the Indian Army to drive out the Pakistanis.

The resulting war over Kashmir, the First Kashmir War, lasted until
1948, when India moved the issue to the UN Security Council. Sheikh
Abdullah was not in favor of India seeking UN intervention because he
was sure the Indian Army could free the entire State of invaders.
The UN had previously passed resolutions for setting up monitoring of
the conflict in Kashmir. Following the set-up of the United Nations
Military Observer Group in India and Pakistan (UNCIP), the UN
Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 21 April 1948. The
resolution imposed an immediate cease-fire and called on Pakistan to
withdraw all military presence. The resolution stated that Pakistan
would have no say in Jammu and Kashmir politics. India would retain
a minimum military presence and "the final disposition of the State of
Jammu and Kashmir will be made in accordance with the will of the
people expressed through the democratic method of a free and
impartial plebiscite conducted under the auspices of the United
Nations." The ceasefire was enacted on 31 December 1948.

The Instrument of Accession of Kashmir to India

was accepted by Viceroy Louis Mountbatten, 1 st

Earl Mountbatten of Burma.

The Indian and Pakistani governments agreed to hold the plebiscite,

but Pakistan did not withdraw its troops from Kashmir, thus violating

T221
the conditions for holding the plebiscite. In addition, the Indian

T221
Government distanced itself from its commitment to hold a plebiscite. Over the next several years, the UN

Security Council passed four new resolutions, revising the terms of Resolution 47 to include a synchronous

withdrawal of both Indian and Pakistani troops from the region, per the recommendations of General Andrew

McNaughton. To this end, UN arbitrators put forward 1 1 different proposals for the demilitarization of the region.

All of these were accepted by Pakistan, but rejected by the Indian government. The resolutions were passed by

T241
United Nations Security Council under Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter. Resolutions passed under

Chapter VI of the UN charter are considered non-binding and have no mandatory enforceability, as opposed to the

resolutions passed under Chapter VII

[25]

Sino-Indian War

In 1962, troops from the People's Republic of China and India clashed in territory claimed by both. China won a
swift victory in the war, resulting in the Chinese annexation of the region called Aksai Chin, which has continued as
of January 2012. Another smaller area, the Trans-Karakoram, was demarcated as the Line of Control (LOC) between
China and Pakistan, although some of the territory on the Chinese side is claimed by India to be part of Kashmir. The
line that separates India from China in this region is known as the "Line of Actual Control".

Kashmir conflict 45

1965 and 1971 wars

In 1965 and 1971, heavy fighting broke out again between India and Pakistan. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
resulted in the defeat of Pakistan and the Pakistani military's surrender in East Pakistan, leading to the creation of
Bangladesh. The Simla Agreement was signed in 1972 between India and Pakistan. By this treaty, both countries
agreed to settle all issues by peaceful means using mutual discussion in the framework of the UN Charter.

1989 popular insurgency and militancy

In the years since 1990, the Kashmiri Muslims and the Indian government have conspired to abolish the complexities of Kashmiri civilization.
The world it inhabited has vanished: the state government and the political class, the rule of law, almost all the Hindu inhabitants of the valley,
alcohol, cinemas, cricket matches, picnics by moonlight in the saffron fields, schools, universities, an independent press, tourists and banks. In
this reduction of civilian reality, the sights of Kashmir are redefined: not the lakes and Mogul gardens, or the storied triumphs of Kashmiri
agriculture, handicrafts and cookery, but two entities that confront each other without intermediary: the mosque and the army camp.

[27]
— British journalist lames Buchan

r2Rir?9i
In 1989, a widespread popular and armed insurgency started in Kashmir. After the 1987 State legislative

assembly election, some of the results were disputed. This resulted in the formation of militant wings after the

election and was the beginning of the Mujahadeen insurgency, which continues to this day. India contends that

the insurgency was largely started by Afghan mujahadeen who entered the Kashmir valley following the end of the

Soviet- Afghan War. Pakistani and Kashmiri nationalists argue that Afghan mujahideen did not leave Afghanistan in

T311
large numbers until 1992, three years after the insurgency began. Yasin Malik, a leader of one faction of the

Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front, was one of the Kashmiris to organize militancy in Kashmir, along with Ashfaq

Majid Wani and Farooq Ahmad Dar (alias Bitta Karatay). Since 1995, Malik has renounced the use of violence and

calls for strictly peaceful methods to resolve the dispute. He developed differences with one of the senior leaders,

Farooq Siddiqui (alias Farooq Papa), for shunning the demand for an independent Kashmir and trying to cut a deal

with the Indian Prime Minister. This resulted in a spilt in which Bitta Karatay, Salim Nanhaji, and other senior

[32] [331

comrades joined Farooq Papa. Pakistan claims these insurgents are Jammu and Kashmir citizens, and are

rising up against the Indian army in an independence movement. Pakistan accuses the Indian army of committing
serious human rights violations in Kashmir. Pakistan denies that it has or currently is supplying weapons and
ammunition to the insurgents.

India claims these insurgents are Islamic terrorist groups from Pakistan-administered Kashmir and Afghanistan,

[34]
fighting to make Jammu and Kashmir, a part of Pakistan. They claim Pakistan is supplying munitions to the

terrorists and training them in Pakistan. India states that the terrorists have been killing many citizens in Kashmir and

committing human rights violations. They deny that their own armed forces are responsible for human rights abuses.

On a visit to Pakistan in 2006 current Chief Minister of Kashmir Omar Abdullah remarked that foreign militants

[35]
were engaged in reckless killings and mayhem in the name of religion. Indian government has said militancy is

[9]
now on the decline.

The Pakistani government calls these insurgents "Kashmiri freedom fighters", and claims that it gives only moral and
diplomatic support to these insurgents, though India believes they are Pakistan-supported terrorists from Pakistan

Administered Kashmir. In October 2008, President Asif Ali Zardari of Pakistan called the Kashmir separatists,

T371
terrorists in an interview with The Wall Street Journal. These comments by Zardari sparked outrage amongst

[30]
many Kashmiris, some of whom defied a curfew by the Indian army to burn him in effigy.

In 2008, pro-separation leader Mirwaiz Umar Farooq told the Washington Post that there has been a "purely

rsi
indigenous, purely Kashmiri" peaceful protest movement alongside the insurgency in Indian-administered

Kashmir since 1989. The movement was created for the same reason as the insurgency; it began with the disputed

election of 1987. The Kashmiris have grievances with the Indian government, specifically the Indian Military, which

[g][9][39]
has committed human rights violations, according to the United Nations.

Kashmir conflict

46

Al-Qaeda involvement

In a 'Letter to American People' written by Osama bin Laden in 2002, he stated that one of the reasons he was
fighting America is because of its support of India on the Kashmir issue. While on a trip to Delhi in 2002, U.S.

Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld suggested that Al-Qaeda was active in Kashmir, though he did not have any

[421 [43]

hard evidence. An investigation in 2002 unearthed evidence that Al-Qaeda and its affiliates were prospering in

Pakistan-administered Kashmir with tacit approval of Pakistan's National Intelligence agency Inter-Services

[441

Intelligence. A team of Special Air Service and Delta Force was sent into Indian-administered Kashmir in 2002

to hunt for Osama bin Laden after reports that he was being sheltered by the Kashmiri militant group

T451
Harkat-ul-Mujahideen. U.S. officials believed that Al-Qaeda was helping organize a campaign of terror in

Kashmir in order to provoke conflict between India and Pakistan. Their strategy was to force Pakistan to move its

troops to the border with India, thereby relieving pressure on Al-Qaeda elements hiding in northwestern Pakistan.

U.S. intelligence analysts say Al-Qaeda and Taliban operatives in Pakistan-administered Kashmir are helping

terrorists they had trained in Afghanistan to infiltrate Indian-administered Kashmir. Fazlur Rehman Khalil, the

leader of the Harkat-ul-Mujahideen, signed al-Qaeda's 1998 declaration of holy war, which called on Muslims to

[471
attack all Americans and their allies. In 2006 Al-Qaeda claim they have established a wing in Kashmir; this

worried the Indian government. Indian Army Lt. Gen. H.S. Panag, GOC-in-C Northern Command, said to

reporters that the army has ruled out the presence of Al-Qaeda in Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir. He said

that there no evidence that verifies reports from the media of an Al-Qaeda presence in the state. He stated that

[491
Al-Qaeda had strong ties with the Kashmir militant groups Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed in Pakistan.

While on a visit to Pakistan in January 2010, U.S. Defense secretary Robert Gates stated that Al-Qaeda was seeking

to destabilize the region and planning to provoke a nuclear war between India and Pakistan

[50]

In September 2009, a U.S. Drone strike reportedly killed Ilyas Kashmiri, who was the chief of Harkat-ul-Jihad
al-Islami, a Kashmiri militant group associated with Al-Qaeda. Kashmiri was described by Bruce Riedel as a

'prominent' Al-Qaeda member, while others described him as the head of military operations for Al-Qaeda.
Waziristan had now become the new battlefield for Kashmiri militants, who were now fighting NATO in support of
Al-Qaeda. Ilyas Kashmiri was charged by the U.S. in a plot against Jyllands-Posten, the Danish newspaper which
was at the center of Jyllands-Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy.

Indian Army Lt. Gen. H.S. Panag, GOC-in-C Northern Command told reporters that the army has ruled out the
presence of Al-Qaeda in Jammu and Kashmir, and that there is no evidence that confirms an Al Qaeda presence in

the state

[57]

Conflict in Kargil

In mid-1999, insurgents and Pakistani soldiers from Pakistani
Kashmir infiltrated into Jammu and Kashmir. During the winter
season, Indian forces regularly move down to lower altitudes, as
severe climatic conditions makes it almost impossible for them to
guard the high peaks near the Line of Control. The insurgents took
advantage of this and occupied vacant mountain peaks of the
Kargil range overlooking the highway in Indian Kashmir that
connects Srinagar and Leh. By blocking the highway, they wanted
to cut off the only link between the Kashmir Valley and Ladakh.
This resulted in a high-scale conflict between the Indian Army and
the Pakistan Army.

Location of conflict.

Kashmir conflict

47

Fears of the Kargil War turning into a nuclear war provoked the then-United States President Bill Clinton to pressure
Pakistan to retreat. Faced with mounting losses of personnel and posts, the Pakistan Army withdrew their remaining
troops from the area, ending the conflict. India reclaimed control of the peaks, which they now patrol and monitor all
year long.

Reasons behind the dispute

The Kashmir Conflict arises from the Partition of British India in 1947 into modern India and Pakistan. Both the
countries have made claims to Kashmir, based on historical developments and religious affiliations of the Kashmiri
people. The state of Jammu and Kashmir, which lies strategically in the north-west of the subcontinent, bordering
Afghanistan and China, was a princely state ruled by Maharaja Hari Singh under the paramountcy of British India. In
geographical and legal terms, the Maharaja could have joined either of the two new Dominions. Although urged by
the Viceroy, Lord Mountbatten of Burma, to determine the future of his state before the transfer of power took place,
Singh demurred. In October 1947, incursions by Pakistan took place leading to a war, as a result of which the state of
Jammu and Kashmir remains divided between the two countries.

Administered by

Area

Population

% Muslim

% Hindu

% Buddhist

% Other

India

Kashmir valley

~4 million

95%

4%

-

-

Jammu

~3 million

30%

66%

-

4%

Ladakh

-0.25 million

46% (Shia)

-

50%

3%

Pakistan

Northern Areas

~1 million

99%

-

-

-

Azad Kashmir

~2.6 million

100%

-

-

-

China

Aksai Chin

-

-

-

-

-

KOI

• Statistics from the BBC report. In Depth "There are roughly 1.5 million refugees from Indian-administered Kashmir in Pakistan

[59]
administered Kashmir and Pakistan UNHCR

• About 300,000 Hindus in Indian Administered Kashmir valley are internally displaced due to militancy in Kashmir CIA

• Muslims are the majority in Poonch, Rajouri, Kishtwar, and Doda districts in Jammu region. Shia Muslims make up the majority in Kargil
district in Ladakh region.

• India does not accept the two-nation theory and considers that Kashmir, despite being a Muslim-majority state, is in many ways an "integral
part" of secular India.

Two-thirds of the former princely state (known as the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir), comprising Jammu, the
Kashmir Valley, and the sparsely populated Buddhist area of Ladakh are controlled by India; one-third is
administered by Pakistan. The latter includes a narrow strip of land called Azad Kashmir and the Northern Areas,
compromising the Gilgit Agency, Baltistan, and the former kingdoms of Hunza and Nagar. Attempts to resolve the
dispute through political discussions were unsuccessful. In September 1965, war broke out again between Pakistan
and India. The United Nations called for another cease-fire, and peace was restored once again following the
Tashkent Declaration in 1966, by which both nations returned to their original positions along the demarcated line.
After the 1971 war and the creation of independent Bangladesh, under the terms of the 1972 Simla Agreement
between Prime Minister Indira Gandhi of India and Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto of Pakistan, it was agreed that neither
country would seek to alter the cease-fire line in Kashmir, which was renamed as the Line of Control, "unilaterally,
irrespective of mutual differences and legal interpretations".

Numerous violations of the Line of Control have occurred, including the incursions by insurgents and Pakistani
armed forces at Kargil leading to the Kargil war. There are also sporadic clashes on the Siachen Glacier, where the
Line of Control is not demarcated and both countries maintain forces at altitudes rising to 20000 ft (unknown
operator: u'strong 1 m), with the Indian forces serving at higher altitudes.

Kashmir conflict 48

Indian view

The Indian viewpoint is succinctly summarized by Ministry of External
affairs, Government of India —

• India holds that the Instrument of Accession of the State of Jammu
and Kashmir to the Union of India, signed by Maharaja Hari Singh
(erstwhile ruler of the State) on 25 October 1947 & executed

on 27 October 1947 between the ruler of Kashmir and the
Governor General of India was a legal act, was completely valid in
terms of the Government of India Act (1935), Indian Independence
Act (1947) and international law and was total and irrevocable. *"^»i ^-?_

There is no evidence of any deceit practiced by India on Kashmir.

Maharaja Hari Singh signed the Instrument of
Accession in October 1947 under which he

The Government of India had no right to question the right of the acceded the State of Jammu and Kashmir to the

Maharaja to sign the Instrument of Accession, as he alone had the Union of India.

right and power to take a decision for his state. To have asked the

ruler to establish his right to sign the Instrument of Accession would have meant that the Government of India

was going to meddle with the internal policies of the state. Law does not permit any such intervention in the

affairs of another state.

• The Constituent assembly of Jammu and Kashmir had unanimously ratified the Maharaja's Instrument of
Accession to India and had adopted a constitution for the state that called for a perpetual merger of Jammu and
Kashmir with the Union of India. India claims that the Constituent assembly was a representative one, and that its
views were those of the Kashmiri people at the time.

• United Nations Security Council Resolution 1 172 tacitly accepts India's stand regarding all outstanding issues
between India and Pakistan and urges the need to resolve the dispute through mutual dialogue and does not call
for a plebiscite.

• United Nations Security Council Resolution 47 cannot be implemented since Pakistan failed to withdraw its
forces from Kashmir, which was the first step in implementing the resolution. India is also of the view that
Resolution 47 is obsolete, since the geography and demographics of the region have been permanently altered.
The resolution was passed by United Nations Security Council under Chapter VI of the United Nations Charter. It
is therefore non-binding and has no mandatory enforceability, as opposed to the resolutions passed under Chapter

vn [24][25]

• India does not accept the two-nation theory that forms the basis of Pakistan and considers that Kashmir, despite
being a Muslim-majority state, is in many ways an "integral part" of secular India.

• The state of Jammu and Kashmir was provided significant autonomy in Article 370 of the Constitution of
India. [67]

• All differences between India and Pakistan, including Kashmir, need to be settled through bilateral negotiations as
agreed to by the two countries when they signed the Simla Agreement on 2 July 1972.

Additional Indian viewpoints regarding the broader debate over the Kashmir conflict include —

• In a diverse country like India, disaffection and discontent are not uncommon. Indian democracy has the

necessary resilience to accommodate genuine grievances within the framework of India's sovereignty, unity, and

integrity. The Government of India has expressed its willingness to accommodate the legitimate political demands

[59]
of the people of the state of Kashmir.

• Insurgency and terrorism in Kashmir is deliberately being fueled by Pakistan to create instability in the region.
The Government of India has repeatedly accused Pakistan of waging a proxy war in Kashmir by providing
weapons and financial assistance to terrorist groups in the region.

• Pakistan is trying to raise anti-India sentiment among the people of Kashmir by spreading false propaganda

T741
against India. According to the state government of Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistani radio and television

Kashmir conflict 49

T751
channels deliberately spread "hate and venom" against India to alter Kashmiri opinion.

• India has asked the United Nations not to leave unchallenged or unaddressed the claims of moral, political, and
diplomatic support for terrorism, which were clearly in contravention of United Nations Security Council
Resolution 1373. This is a Chapter VII resolution that makes it mandatory for member states to not provide active
or passive support to terrorist organizations. Specifically, it has pointed out that the Pakistani government
continues to support various terrorist organizations, such as Jaish-e-Mohammad and Lashkar-e-Taiba, in direct

[781

violation of this resolution.

• India points out reports by human rights organizations condemning Pakistan for the lack of civic liberties in

[741 [79]

Pakistan-administered Kashmir. According to India, most regions of Pakistani Kashmir, especially

Northern Areas, continue to suffer from lack of political recognition, economic development, and basic
fundamental rights.

• Dr Karan Singh, the state's first and last sadar-e-riyast and son of the last Dogra ruler of Jammu and Kashmir
Maharaja Hari Singh said that the Instrument of Accession signed by Maharaja Hari Singh was the same as signed
by other states; however the state had its own separate constitution. That is why the state has special status and

[811

Article 370. With the signing of Instrument of Accession, it became an integral part of India.

Pakistani view

Pakistan's claims to the disputed region are based on the rejection of Indian claims to Kashmir, namely the
Instrument of Accession. Pakistan insists that the Maharaja was not a popular leader, and was regarded as a tyrant by

[821

most Kashmiris. Pakistan maintains that the Maharaja used brute force to suppress the population. Pakistan
accuses India of hypocrisy, as it refused to recognize the accession of Junagadh to Pakistan and Hyderabad's
independence, on the grounds that those two states had Hindu majorities (in fact, India had occupied and forcibly

ro'}]

integrated those two territories). Since he had fled Kashmir due to Pakistani invasion, Pakistan asserts that the
Maharaja held no authority in determining Kashmir's future. Pakistan argues that even if the Maharaja had any
authority in determining the plight of Kashmir, he signed the Instrument of Accession under duress, thus invalidating
the legitimacy of his actions.

Pakistan claims that Indian forces were in Kashmir before the Instrument of Accession was signed with India, and
that therefore Indian troops were in Kashmir in violation of the Standstill Agreement, which was designed to
maintain the status quo in Kashmir (although India was not signatory to the Agreement, which was signed between
Pakistan and the Hindu ruler of Jammu and Kashmir).

From 1990 to 1999, some organizations reported that the Indian Armed Forces, its paramilitary groups, and
counter-insurgent militias were responsible for the deaths of 4,501 Kashmiri civilians. Also from 1990 to 1999, there
were records of 4,242 women between the ages of 7—70 being raped. Similar allegations were also made by

some human rights organizations.

In short, Pakistan holds that:

• The popular Kashmiri insurgency demonstrates that the Kashmiri people no longer wish to remain within India.
Pakistan suggests that this means that Kashmir either wants to be with Pakistan or independent.

• According to the two-nation theory, which is one of the theories that is cited for the partition that created India
and Pakistan, Kashmir should have been with Pakistan, because it has a Muslim majority.

• India has shown disregard to the resolutions of the UN Security Council and the United Nations Commission in
India and Pakistan by failing to hold a plebiscite to determine the future allegiance of the state.

• The Kashmiri people have now been forced by circumstances to uphold their right of self-determination through
militancy. Pakistan claims to give the Kashmiri insurgents moral, ethical and military support (see 1999 Kargil
Conflict).

• Recent protests in Indian-administered Kashmir attracted a large number of people to massive rallies that took

T911
place to oppose Indian control of the state.

Kashmir conflict 50

[92]

• Pakistan points to the violence that accompanies elections in Indian Kashmir and the anti Indian sentiments

[931
expressed by some people in the state.

• Pakistan has noted the widespread use of extrajudicial killings in Indian-administered Kashmir carried out by
Indian security forces while claiming they were caught up in encounters with militants. These encounters are
commonplace in Indian-administered Kashmir. The encounters go largely uninvestigated by the authorities, and
the perpetrators are spared criminal prosecution.

• Pakistan points towards reports from the United Nations which condemn India for its human rights violations

[39]
against Kashmiri people. Human rights organizations have strongly condemned Indian troops for widespread

rape and murder of innocent civilians while accusing these civilians of being militants.

• The Chenab formula was a compromise proposed in the 1960s, in which the Kashmir valley and other
Muslim-dominated areas north of the Chenab river would go to Pakistan, and Jammu and other Hindu-dominated
regions would go to India.

Chinese view

• China did not accept the boundaries of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu, north of the Aksai Chin and the

ri7i

Karakoram that were proposed by the British.

• China settled its border disputes with Pakistan in the Trans Karakoram Tract in 1963 with the provision that the
settlement was subject to the final solution of the Kashmir dispute.

Cross-border troubles

The border and the Line of Control separating Indian and Pakistani Kashmir passes through some exceptionally
difficult terrain. The world's highest battleground, the Siachen Glacier, is a part of this difficult-to-man boundary.
Even with 200,000 military personnel, India maintains that it is infeasible to place enough men to guard all
sections of the border throughout the various seasons of the year. Pakistan has indirectly acquiesced its role in failing
to prevent "cross border terrorism" when it agreed to curb such activities after intense pressure from the Bush
administration in mid 2002.

The Government of Pakistan has repeatedly claimed that by constructing a fence along the line of control, India is
violating the Shimla Accord. India claims the construction of the fence has helped decrease armed infiltration into
Indian-administered Kashmir.

In 2002, Pakistani President and Army Chief General Pervez Musharraf promised to check infiltration into Jammu
and Kashmir.

Water dispute

Another reason for the dispute over Kashmir is water. Kashmir is the origin point for many rivers and tributaries of
the Indus River basin. The river basin is divided between Pakistan, which has about 60 per cent of the catchment
area, India with about 20 per cent, Afghanistan with 5 per cent and around 15 per cent in Tibet. The river tributaries
are the Jhelum and Chenab rivers, which primarily flow into Pakistan while other branches — the Ravi, Beas, and the
Sutlej — irrigate northern India.

The Indus is a river system that sustains communities in both countries India and Pakistan. They both have
extensively dammed the Indus River for irrigation fo their crops and hydro-electricity systems. In arbitrating the
conflict in 1947 Sir Cyril Radcliffe, decided to demarcate the territories as he was unable to give to one or the other
the control over the river as it was a main economic resource forth both areas. . The Line of Control (LoC) was
recognised as an international border establishing that India would have control over the upper riparian and Pakistan
over the lower riparian of Indus and its tributaries. However they might seem separate issues, the Kashmir dispute
and the dispute over the water control are somehow related and the fight over the water remains as one of the main
problems when establishing good relationships between the two countries.

Kashmir conflict 5 1

In 1948, Eugene Black, then president of the World Bank, offered his services in order to solve the tension around
the water control. In the early days of independence, the fact that India was able to shut off the Central Bari Doab
Canals at the time of the sowing season, causing significant damage to Pakistan's crops. Nevertheless, military and
political clashes over Kashmir in the early years of independence appear to be more about ideology and sovereignty,
rather than sharing water resources. But the minister of Pakistan stated the oppossite.

The Indus Waters Treaty was signed by both countries in September 1960, giving exclusive rights over the three
western rivers of the Indus river system (Jhelum, Chenab and Indus) to Pakistan, and over the three eastern rivers
(Sutlej, Ravi and Beas) to India, as long as it does not reduce or delay the supply to Pakistan. India therefore
maintains that they are not willing to break the regulation established and they see no more problems with this issue.

Human rights abuse
Indian administered Kashmir

Claims of human rights abuses have been made against the Indian Armed Forces and the armed insurgents operating
in Jammu and Kashmir. . Since 1989, over 50,000 and by some reports nearly 100,000 Kashmiris have claimed
to be died during the conflict. . Indian Security forces have allegedly killed hundreds of Kashmiris by
indiscriminate use of force and torture, firing on demonstrations, custodial killings, fake encounters and unlawful
detensions . Kashmiris in thousands have vanished in enforced disappearances by

Indian security forces . State Human Rights Commission (SHRC) has found 2,730 bodies buried into

unmarked graves scattered all over Kashmir believed to contain the remains of victims of unlawful killings and
enforced disappearances by Indian security forces .According to the cables leaked by website WikiLeaks,

US diplomats in 2005 were informed by the International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC) about the use of
torture and sexual humiliation against hundreds of Kashmiri detainees by the security forces .The cable said
Indian security forces relied on torture for confessions and the human right abuses are believed to be condoned by
the Indian government

During the eruption of armed rebellion the Islamic insurgency has claimed to have specifically targeted the Hindu
Kashmiri Pandits minority and violated their human rights. 400,000 Kashmiri Hindus have either been murdered or
displaced. The main organisation of Hindus in Kashmir, Kashmir Pandit Sangharsh Samiti claimed that 399
Kashmiri Pandit were killed by Islamic insurgents. The violence was condemned and labeled as ethnic cleansing

M221

in a 2006 resolution passed by the United States Congress. The CIA has reported about 300,000 Pandit Hindus
and over 100,000 Kashmiri Muslims from Indian Administered Kashmir are internally displaced due to the
insurgency. The United Nations Commission on Human Rights reports that there are roughly 1.5 million

refugees from Indian-administered Kashmir in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and in Pakistan.

A 2005 study conducted by Medecins Sans Frontieres found that Kashmiri women are among the worst sufferers of
sexual violence in the world, with 11.6% of respondents reporting that they had been victims of sexual abuse.
Some surveys have found that in the Kashmir region itself (where the bulk of separatist and Indian military activity
is concentrated), popular perception holds that the Indian Armed Forces are more to blame for human rights
violations than the separatist groups. Amnesty International has called on India to "unequivocally condemn enforced
disappearances" and to ensure that impartial investigation is conducted on mass graves in its Kashmir region. The

Indian state police confirms as many as 331 deaths while in custody and 111 enforced disappearances since

ri27iri2sin29in30i
1989. Amnesty International criticised the Indian Military regarding an incident on 22 April 1996,

when several armed forces personnel forcibly entered the house of a 32-year-old woman in the village of Wawoosa

in the Rangreth district of Jammu and Kashmir. They reportedly molested her 12-year-old daughter and raped her

other three daughters, aged 14, 16, and 18. When another woman attempted to prevent the soldiers from attacking

her two daughters, she was beaten. Soldiers reportedly told her 17-year-old daughter to remove her clothes so that

they could check whether she was hiding a gun. They molested her before leaving the house.

Kashmir conflict 52

Several international agencies and the UN have reported human rights violations in Indian-administered Kashmir. In

a recent press release the OHCHR spokesmen stated "The Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights is

concerned about the recent violent protests in Indian-administered Kashmir that have reportedly led to civilian

[391
casualties as well as restrictions to the right to freedom of assembly and expression." A 1996 Human Rights

Watch report accuses the Indian military and Indian-government backed paramilitaries of "committ[ing] serious and

widespread human rights violations in Kashmir." " One such alleged massacre occurred on 6 January 1993 in the

town of Sopore. TIME Magazine described the incident as such: "In retaliation for the killing of one soldier,

paramilitary forces rampaged through Sopore's market, setting buildings ablaze and shooting bystanders. The Indian

government pronounced the event 'unfortunate' and claimed that an ammunition dump had been hit by gunfire,

setting off fires that killed most of the victims." " There have been claims of disappearances by the police or the

army in Kashmir by several human rights organizations. Jammu and Kashmir Public Safety Act,

1978: Human rights organizations have asked Indian government to repeal the Public Safety Act, since

n 2si
"a detainee may be held in administrative detention for a maximum of two years without a court order."

Many human rights organizations such as Amnesty International and
the Human Rights Watch (HRW) have condemned human rights
abuses in Kashmir by Indians such as "extra-judicial executions",
"disappearances", and torture. The "Armed Forces Special Powers
Act" grants the military, wide powers of arrest, the right to shoot to
kill, and to occupy or destroy property in counterinsurgency
operations. Indian officials claim that troops need such powers because
the army is only deployed when national security is at serious risk from
A soldier guards the roadside checkpoint outside armed combatants . Such circumstances, they say, call for extraordinary

Srinagar International Airport in January 2009.

| measures. Human rights organizations have also asked Indian

M371

government to repeal the Public Safety Act, since "a detainee may

n 28i
be held in administrative detention for a maximum of two years without a court order." A 2008 report by the

United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees determined that Indian Administered Kashmir was only 'partly

T1271
free'. A recent report by Amnesty International stated that up to 20,000 people have been detained by draconian

laws in Indian-administered Kashmir.

Pakistan administered Kashmir

Azad Kashmir

Pakistan, an Islamic Republic, imposes multiple restrictions on peoples' religious freedom. Religious minorities
also face unofficial economic and societal discrimination and have been targets of sectarian violence.

The constitution of Azad Kashmir specifically prohibits activities that may be prejudicial to the state's accession to
Pakistan, and as such regularly suppresses demonstrations against the government. A number of Islamist militant
groups operate in this area including Al-Qaeda, with tacit permission from Pakistan's intelligence. As in Indian
administered Kashmir, there have been allegations of human rights abuse.

A report titled "Kashmir: Present Situation and Future Prospects", which was submitted to the European Parliament

by Emma Nicholson, Baroness Nicholson of Winterbourne, was critical of the lack of human rights, justice,

T1421
democracy, and Kashmiri representation in the Pakistan National Assembly. According to the Human Rights

Commission of Pakistan, Pakistan's Inter Services Intelligence operates in Pakistan-administered Kashmir and is

involved in extensive surveillance, arbitrary arrests, torture, and murder. Generally this is done with impunity

and perpetrators go unpunished. The 2008 report by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

determined that Pakistan-administered Kashmir was 'Not free'. According to Shaukat Ali, chairman of the

International Kashmir Alliance, "On one hand Pakistan claims to be the champion of the right of self-determination

Kashmir conflict 53

of the Kashmiri people, but she has denied the same rights under its controlled parts of Kashmir and

Gilgit-Baltistan". [143]

Gilgit-Baltistan

The main demand of the people of Gilgit-Baltistan is a constitutional status to the region as a fifth province of

[1441 [1451

Pakistan. However, Pakistan claims that Gilgit-Baltistan cannot be given constitutional status due to

Pakistan's commitment to the 1948 UN resolution. In 2007, International Crisis Group stated that "Almost

six decades after Pakistan's independence, the constitutional status of the Federally Administered Northern Areas
(Gilgit and Baltistan), once part of the former princely state of Jammu and Kashmir and now under Pakistani control,
remains undetermined, with political autonomy a distant dream. The region's inhabitants are embittered by
Islamabad's unwillingness to devolve powers in real terms to its elected representatives, and a nationalist movement,
which seeks independence, is gaining ground. The rise of sectarian extremism is an alarming consequence of this
denial of basic political rights". A two-day conference on Gilgit-Baltistan was held on 8—9 April 2008 at the
European Parliament in Brussels under the auspices of the International Kashmir Alliance. Several members of
the European Parliament expressed concern over the human rights violation in Gilgit-Baltistan and urged the

[14g][149]

government of Pakistan to establish democratic institutions and rule of law in the area.

In 2009, the Pakistan government implemented an autonomy package for Gilgit-Baltistan which entails rights similar

1 [1441

to those of Pakistan s other provinces. Gilgit-Baltistan thus gains province-like status without actually being

[144] [146]

conferred such a status constitutionally. The direct rule by Islamabad is replaced by an elected legislative

assembly and its chief minister.

There has been criticism and opposition to this move in Pakistan, India, and Pakistan administrated Kashmir.
The move has been dubbed as an eyewash to hide the real mechanics of power, which allegedly are under the direct
control of the Pakistani federal government. The package was opposed by Pakistani Kashmiri politicians who
claimed that the integration of Gilgit-Baltistan into Pakistan would undermine their case for the independence of
Kashmir from India. 300 activists from Kashmiri groups protested during the first Gilgit-Baltistan legislative
assembly elections, with some carrying banners reading "Pakistan's expansionist designs in Gilgit-Baltistan are
unacceptable"

In December 2009, activists of nationalist Kashmiri groups staged a protest in Muzaffarabad to condemn the alleged
rigging of elections and killing of a 18-year old student.

Kashmir conflict

54

Map issues

As with other disputed territories, each government issues maps
depicting their claims in Kashmir territory, regardless of actual control.
Due to India's Criminal Law Amendment Act, 1961, it is illegal in
India to exclude all or part of Kashmir in a map (or to publish any map
that differs from those of the Survey of India). It is illegal in

Pakistan not to include the state of Jammu and Kashmir as disputed
territory, as permitted by the United Nations. Non-participants often
use the Line of Control and the Line of Actual Control as the depicted
boundaries, as is done in the CIA World Factbook, and the region is
often marked out in hashmarks, although the Indian government
strictly opposes such practices. When Microsoft released a map in
Windows 95 and MapPoint 2002, a controversy was raised because it
did not show all of Kashmir as part of India as per the Indian claim. All
the neutral and Pakistani companies claim to follow the UN's map and
over 90% of all maps containing the territory of Kashmir show it as
disputed territory

AFGHANISTAN

Jammu and
Kashmir Area

United Nations' map of Jammu and Kashmir

[154]

The boundaries, names, and designations used on the map prepared by the United Nations do not imply official
endorsement or acceptance by the United Nations, the Commonwealth Secretariat, or the publishers concerning the
legal status of any country, territory or area, or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or
boundaries. There is no intention to define the status of Jammu and/or Kashmir, which has not yet been agreed upon
by the parties. A dotted line represents the Line of Control agreed upon by the Republic of India and the Government
of Pakistan since 1972. Both parties have not yet agreed upon the final status of the region, and nothing significant
has been implemented since the peace process began in 2004.

The Government of Pakistan maintains unprovisionally and unconditionally that the informal accession of Jammu
and Kashmir to Pakistan or to the Republic of India remains to be decided by UN plebiscite. It accepts the UN's map
of the territory.

The Government of India states that "the external artificial boundaries of India, especially concerning the Kashmir
region under its jurisdiction created by a foreign body are neither correct nor authenticated".

Recent developments

India continues to assert their sovereignty or rights over the entire region of Kashmir, while Pakistan maintains that it
is a disputed territory. Pakistan argues that the status quo cannot be considered as a solution. Pakistan insists on a
UN-sponsored plebiscite. Unofficially, the Pakistani leadership has indicated that they would be willing to accept
alternatives such as a demilitarized Kashmir, if sovereignty of Azad Kashmir was to be extended over the Kashmir
valley, or the "Chenab" formula, by which India would retain parts of Kashmir on its side of the Chenab river, and
Pakistan the other side — effectively re-partitioning Kashmir on communal lines. The problem is that the population
of the Pakistan-administered portion of Kashmir is for the most part ethnically, linguistically, and culturally different
from the Valley of Kashmir, a part of Indian-administered Kashmir. A partition on the Chenab formula is opposed
by some Kashmiri politicians, though some, such as Sajjad Lone, have suggested that the non-Muslim part of Jammu
and Kashmir be separated from Kashmir and handed to India. Some political analysts say that the Pakistan state
policy shift and mellowing of its aggressive stance may have to do with its total failure in the Kargil War and the
subsequent 9/11 attacks. These events put pressure on Pakistan to alter its position on terrorism. Many neutral
parties to the dispute have noted that the UN resolution on Kashmir is no longer relevant. The European Union
has viewed that the plebiscite is not in Kashmiris' interest. The report notes that the UN conditions for such a

Kashmir conflict 55

plebiscite have not been, and can no longer be, met by Pakistan. The Hurriyat Conference observed in 2003 that
a "plebiscite [is] no longer an option". Besides the popular factions that support either parties, there is a third
faction which supports independence and withdrawal of both India and Pakistan. These have been the respective
stands of the parties for long, and there have been no significant changes over the years. As a result, all efforts to
solve the conflict have been futile so far.

In a 2001 report titled "Pakistan's Role in the Kashmir Insurgency" from the American RAND Corporation, the think
tank noted that "the nature of the Kashmir conflict has been transformed from what was originally a secular, locally
based struggle (conducted via the Jammu Kashmir Liberation Front — JKLF) to one that is now largely carried out by
foreign militants and rationalized in pan-Islamic religious terms." Most of the militant organizations are composed of
foreign mercenaries, mostly from the Pakistani Punjab. In 2010, with the support of its intelligence agencies,
Pakistan has again been 'boosting' Kashmir militants, and recruitment of mujahideen in the Pakistani state of Punjab
has increased. In 201 1, the FBI revealed that Pakistan's spy agency ISI paid millions of dollars into a United

States-based non-governmental organization to influence politicians and opinion-makers on the Kashmir issue and
arrested Syed Ghulam Nabi Fai.

The Freedom in the World 2006 report categorized Indian-administered Kashmir as "partly free", and
Pakistan-administered Kashmir, as well as the country of Pakistan, as "not free". India claims that contrary to
popular belief, a large proportion of the Jammu and Kashmir populace wishes to remain with India. A MORI survey
found that within Indian-administered Kashmir, 61% of respondents said they felt they would be better off as Indian
citizens, with 33% saying that they did not know, and the remaining 6% favouring Pakistani citizenship. However,
this support for India was mainly in Ladakh and Jammu regions, not the Kashmir Valley, as only 9% of the
respondents from the Kashmir Valley said that they would be better off with India. According to a 2007 poll

conducted by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies in New Delhi, 87% of respondents in the Kashmir
Valley prefer independence over union with India or Pakistan. However, a survey by the Chatham House in both
Indian and Pakistani administered Kashmir found that support of independence was at 43% and 44%
respectively.

The 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which killed over 80,000 people, led to India and Pakistan finalizing negotiations for
the opening of a road for disaster relief through Kashmir.

Efforts to end the crisis

The 9/11 attacks on the United States resulted in the U.S. government wanting to restrain militancy in the world,
including Pakistan. They urged Islamabad to cease infiltrations, which continue to this day, by Islamist militants into
Indian-administered Kashmir. In December 2001, a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament linked to Pakistan,
resulted in war threats, massive deployment, and international fears of a nuclear war in the subcontinent.

After intensive diplomatic efforts by other countries, India and Pakistan began to withdraw troops from the
international border on 10 June 2002, and negotiations began again. Effective 26 November 2003, India and Pakistan
agreed to maintain a ceasefire along the undisputed international border, the disputed Line of Control, and the
Siachen glacier. This is the first such "total ceasefire" declared by both powers in nearly 15 years. In February 2004,
Pakistan increased pressure on Pakistanis fighting in Indian-administered Kashmir to adhere to the ceasefire. The
neighbours launched several other mutual confidence-building measures. Restarting the bus service between the
Indian- and Pakistani- administered Kashmir has helped defuse the tensions between the countries. Both India and
Pakistan have decided to cooperate on economic fronts.

On 5 December 2006, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf told an Indian TV channel that Pakistan would give up
its claim on Kashmir if India accepted some of his peace proposals, including a phased withdrawal of troops,
self-governance for locals, no changes in the borders of Kashmir, and a joint supervision mechanism involving India,
Pakistan, and Kashmir. Musharraf stated that he was ready to give up the United Nations' resolutions regarding
Kashmir.

Kashmir conflict 56

2008 militant attacks

In the week of 10 March 2008, 17 people were wounded when a blast hit the region's only highway overpass located
near the Civil Secretariat — the seat of government of Indian-controlled Kashmir — and the region's high court. A gun
battle between security forces and militants fighting against Indian rule left five people dead and two others injured
on 23 March 2008. The battle began when security forces raided a house on the outskirts of the capital city of
Srinagar, housing militants. The Indian Army has been carrying out cordon-and-search operations against militants
in Indian-administered Kashmir since the violence broke out in 1989. While the authorities say 43,000 persons have
been killed in the violence, various rights groups and non-governmental organizations have put the figure at twice
that number.

According to the Government of India Home Ministry, 2008 was the year with the lowest civilian casualties in 20
years, with 89 deaths, compared to a high of 1,413 in 1996. 85 security personnel died in 2008 compared to 613
in 2001, while 102 militants were killed. The human rights situation improved, with only one custodial death, and no
custodial disappearances. Many analysts say Pakistan's preoccupation with jihadis within its own borders explains
the relative calm.

2008 Kashmir protests

Massive demonstrations occurred after plans by the Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir state government to

2

transfer 100 acres (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ) of land to a trust which runs the Hindu Amarnath shrine in

ri73i

the Muslim-majority Kashmir valley. This land was to be used to build a shelter to house Hindu pilgrims

temporarily during their annual pilgrimage to the Amarnath temple.

Indian security forces and the Indian army responded quickly to keep order. More than 40 unarmed protesters were

killed and at least 300 were detained. The largest protests saw more than a half million people waving

ri77i
Pakistani flags and crying for freedom at a rally on 18 August, according to Time magazine. Pro-independence

Kashmir leader Mirwaiz Umar Farooq warned that the peaceful uprising could lead to an upsurge in violence if

n 78i
India's heavy-handed crackdown on protests was not restrained. The United Nations expressed concern on

India's response to peaceful protests and urged investigations be launched against Indian security personnel who had

T391
taken part in the crackdown.

Separatists and workers of a political party were believed to be behind stone-pelting incidents, which led to

retaliatory fire by the police. An autorickshaw laden with stones meant for distribution was seized by the

n 81 in 82i
police in March 2009. Following the unrest in 2008, secessionist movements got a boost.

2008 Kashmir elections

State elections were held in Indian-held Kashmir in seven phases, starting 17 November and finishing on 24

December 2008. In spite of calls by separatists for a boycott, an unusually high turnout of almost 50% was

n 8^i
recorded. The National Conference party, which was founded by Sheikh Abdullah and is regarded as pro-India,

emerged with a majority of the seats. On 30 December, the Congress Party and the National Conference agreed

to form a coalition government, with Omar Abdullah as Chief Minister. On 5 January 2009, Abdullah was sworn

in as the eleventh Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir.

In March 2009, Abdullah stated that only 800 militants were active in the state and out of these only 30% were
Kashmiris.

Kashmir conflict 57

2009 Kashmir protests

In 2009, protests started over the alleged rape and murder of two young women in Shopian in South Kashmir.
Suspicion pointed towards the police as the perpetrators. A judicial enquiry by a retired High Court confirmed the

suspicion, but a CBI enquiry reversed their conclusion. It gave a fresh impetus to the popular agitation against India.

n ssi
Significantly, the unity between the separatist parties was lacking this time.

2010 Kashmir Unrest

The 2010 Kashmir unrest were a series of protests in the Muslim majority Kashmir Valley in Jammu & Kashmir
which started in June 2010. These protests occurred in response to 'Quit Jammu Kashmir Movement' which was a
civil disobedience movement launched by Hurriyat Conference led by Syed Ali Shah Geelani and Mirwaiz Umar
Farooq, who had called for the complete demilitarization of Jammu and Kashmir. The All Parties Hurriyat
Conference made this call to protest, citing human rights abuses by Indian troops. Protesters shouting

pro-independence slogans, defied curfew, attacked security forces with stones and burnt police vehicles and
government buildings. The Jammu and Kashmir Police and Indian Para-military forces fired live

ammunition on the protesters, resulting in 112 deaths, including many teenagers. The protests subsided after the

M921

Indian government announced a package of measures aimed at defusing the tensions in September 2010.

US President Obama on the conflict

In an interview with Joe Klein of Time magazine in October 2008, Barack Obama expressed his intention to try to
work with India and Pakistan to resolve the crisis. He said he had talked to Bill Clinton about it, as Clinton has
experience being a mediator. In an editorial in The Washington Times, Selig S Harrison, director of the Asia
Programme at the Center for International Policy and a senior scholar of the Woodrow Wilson International, called it
Obama's first foreign policy mistake. In an editorial, The Australian called Obama's idea to appoint a presidential
negotiator "a very stupid and dangerous move indeed". In an editorial in Forbes, Reihan Salam, associate editor

for The Atlantic, noted "The smartest thing President Obama could do on Kashmir is probably nothing. We have to

ri97i
hope that India and Pakistan can work out their differences on Kashmir on their own". The Boston Globe called

the idea of appointing Bill Clinton as an envoy to Kashmir "a mistake". President Obama appointed Richard

Holbrooke as special envoy to Pakistan and Afghanistan. President Asif Ali Zardari hoped that Holbrooke would

help mediate to resolve the Kashmir issue. Subsequently Kashmir was removed from the mandate of

Holbrooke. "Eliminating ... Kashmir from his job description ... is seen as a significant diplomatic concession to

India that reflects increasingly warm ties between the country and the United States," The Washington Post noted in

[2021

a report. Brajesh Mishra, India's former national security adviser, was quoted in the same report as saying that
"No matter what government is in place, India is not going to relinquish control of Jammu and Kashmir". "That is

[203]

written in stone and cannot be changed." According to The Financial Times, India has warned Obama that he

[2041

risks "barking up the wrong tree" if he seeks to broker a settlement between Pakistan and India over Kashmir.

In July 2009, U.S. Assistant Secretary of State Robert O. Blake, Jr. stated that the United States had no plans of
appointing any special envoy to settle the dispute, calling it an issue which needs to be sorted out bilaterally by India
and Pakistan. According to Dawn this will be interpreted in Pakistan as an endorsement of India's position on
Kashmir that no outside power has any role in this dispute.

Kashmir conflict 58

Further reading

Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of India: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kashmir Territories
with Illustrations. &;#8221; 1st edition: Edward Stanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publishers, Jammu.
1971.

Dr. Ijaz Hussain, 1998, Kashmir Dispute: An International Law Perspective, National Institute of Pakistan
Studies

Alastair Lamb, Kashmir: A Disputed Legacy 1846—1990 (Hertingfordbury, Herts: Roxford Books, 1991)
Kashmir Study Group, 1947—1997, the Kashmir dispute at fifty : charting paths to peace (New York, 1997)
Jaspreet Singh, Seventeen Tomatoes— an unprecedented look inside the world of an army camp in Kashmir
(Vehicle Press; Montreal, Canada, 2004)

Navnita Behera, State, identity and violence : Jammu, Kashmir and Ladakh (New Delhi: Manohar, 2000)
Sumit Ganguly, The Crisis in Kashmir (Washington, D.C.: Woodrow Wilson Center Press; Cambridge :
Cambridge U.P., 1997)

Sumantra Bose, The challenge in Kashmir : democracy, self-determination and a just peace (New Delhi: Sage,
1997)

Robert Johnson, A Region in Turmoil (London and New York, Reaktion, 2005)

Hans Kochler, The Kashmir Problem between Law and Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Settlement
Keynote speech delivered at the "Global Discourse on Kashmir 2008." European Parliament, Brussels, 1 April
2008.

Prem Shankar Jha, Kashmir, 1947: rival versions of history (New Delhi : Oxford University Press, 1996)
Manoj Joshi, The Lost Rebellion (New Delhi: Penguin India, 1999)

Alexander Evans, "Why Peace Won't Come to Kashmir", Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April 2001
pl70-175.

Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, E. 1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.
Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in Conflict LB. Tauris, London.
Victoria Schofield, Kashmir in the Crossfire, LB. Tauris, London.
Andrew Whitehead, A Mission in Kashmir, Penguin India, 2007

Muhammad Ayub, An Army; Its Role & Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army from Independence to Kargil
1947-1999). Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania USA. 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3
• Kashmir Conflict, Homepage Washington Post.

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Kashmir conflict 60

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[204] "India warns Obama over Kashmir" (http://www.ft.eom/cms/s/0/a545f3b0-flf9-l ldd-9678-0000779fd2ac.html?nclick_check=l), The

Financial Times, 2009-02-03
[205] US has no plans to appoint special envoy on Kashmir: Blake (http://www.thenews.com.pk/updates.asp?id=83055), The News

International, 2009-07-16

Kashmir conflict 65

[206] US to sign $20 billion defence accords with India (http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/
world/ 12-us+to+sign+20+billion+accords+with+india-bi-07), Dawn, 2009-07-17

External links

• The Future of Kashmir (http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/publication-The-Future-of-Kashmir.html),
Matthew A. Rosenstein et al., ACDIS Swords and Ploughshares 16:1 (winter 2007-8), Program in Arms Control,
Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS) at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.
Centre for Contemporary Conflict on Kargil War (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/index.asp)
BBC articles on Kashmir (http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/in_depth/south_asia/2002/kashmir_flashpoint/)
Recent Kashmir developments (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/kashmir.htm)
The Political Economy of the Kashmir Conflict (http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/srl21.html) U.S.
Institute of Peace Report, June 2004

The Kashmir dispute-cause or symptom? (http://www.sasnet.lu.se/ishtiaqkashmir.html)
LoC-Line of Control situation in Kashmir (http://www.defencejournal.com/sept99/loc.htm)
An outline of the history of Kashmir (http://www.koausa.org/Crown/history.html)
News Coverage of Kashmir (http://social.chass.ncsu.edu/jouvert/v613/sri.htm)
Accession Document (http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/documents/instrument_of_accession.html)
Conflict in Kashmir: Selected Internet Resources by the Library, University of California, Berkeley, USA;
[[University of California at Berkeley (http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/SSEAL/SouthAsia/kashmir.html)]
Library Bibliographies and Web-Bibliographies list]

• Timeline since April 2003 (http://www.iiss. org/showdocument.php?docID=426)

• Kashmir resolution of the European Parliament, 24 May 2007 (http://www.europarl.europa.eu/sides/getDoc.
do?type=TA&reference=P6-TA-2007-0214&language=EN)

• "Election in Kashmir Begins Amid Boycott Calls" (http://www.51voa.com/voa_standard_english/
VOA_Standard_English_26465.html)

• Animated PNG of disputed regions (http://apngs.com/apng/2046/kashmir-conflict#v=ld)

'The template dammit and Kashmir freedom movement is being euiisi<_k'iv<i for deletion.'

66

Stages of the war

Military operations in Ladakh (1948)

Military operations took place in Ladakh in 1948 during the conflict in Jammu and Kashmir between the Indian
Army and Pakistani raiders infiltrated to capture the kingdom of Jammu and Kashmir. The eviction of this invading
force of tribal raiders, who enjoyed numerical superiority, better lines of communication, commanding high ground
and superior logistics, was a major military achievement for the small force of Indian soldiers.

Relief of Leh

Pakistani raiders had besieged and reduced Skardu in early 1948. " It was vital that Leh, the next likely

target, be relieved before it was attacked by the raiders. Maj Prithi Chand, a Lahauli officer with a band of 40
volunteers from the 2nd Battalion, Dogra Regiment began a hazardous mid-winter ascent of Zojila pass on 16
February 1948, with rifles and ammunition for the garrison. They reached Leh on 8 March, where an ad hoc force for

defence was organised, followed soon by a Jammu and Kashmir State Forces detachment bringing additional

[2]:195-199
weapons.

Reinforcement of Leh

The slow advance of raiders permitted reinforcement of Leh by air by a coy of 2nd Battalion, 4 Gorkha Rifles (2/4

T31 ' 109
GR) and later a coy of 2nd Battalion, 8th Gorkha Rifles (2/8 GR) by air just in time to repulse the raiders. Had

the raiders kept advancing they could have captured Leh easily. The garrison of Leh held despite shortage of troops,

weapons and ammunition, sickness and fatigue. In August another coy of 2/8 GR was flown in by air and the

remaining part of the battalion, codenamed Arjun column, with a large column of supplies on mules, trekked to Leh

from Manali. Another large mule column, codenamed Chapati column, followed in September to provide adequate

supplies for the winter. " Lt Col (later Col) HS Parab, CO 2/8 GR, was airlifted to Leh on 23 Aug and later

designated Commander, Leh Brigade (though the force never exceeded two battalions in strength). Spirited

small unit actions and guerilla raids on both banks of the Indus effectively held the raiders at bay throughout

September and October.

Military operations in Ladakh (1948)

67

8: Operation Duck

15 August 1948

-31 October 1948

High Himalayas

M Keran • Gurais * Kal "9 M

I ; ... . rabadj^ "^W_ 5-Sep-48 (Ducki

nel# /*]A J~9 Dras

Baramula f*^Zoji-La Pass
IJri â–  Srinagar

• Gulmarg
/Punch sJL, Kashmir Valley

-*£

/Kotll # #Rajaun Punch Valley

•^

\« • •

— Jhagner a Akhnu

Operation Duck 15 August 1948 - 1 November 1948

Capture of Zoji La

When Zoji La fell to the enemy in May
1948, it was vital for the Indians that the
pass be recaptured before winter so as to
relieve Leh. An unsuccessful frontal attack
was launched by 77 Parachute Brigade
under Brig Hiralal Atal to capture Zoji La
pass. Operation Duck, the earlier

epithet for this assault, was renamed as
Operation Bison by Lt Gen Cariappa, the
Western Army commander. M5 Stuart

light tanks of 7 Cavalry were moved in
dismantled conditions through Srinagar to
Baltal while the superhuman efforts of two
field companies of the Madras Sappers
working day and night improved the mule

track from Baltal up the Zoji La to Gumri. " The surprise attack on 1 November by the brigade with armour,

T41
led by the division commander Thimayya in the lead tank, and supported by two regiments of 25 pounders and a

regiment of 3.7 inch guns, saw the enemy being surprised. The pass was forced and the enemy pushed back to

Matayan.

Liberation of Leh and Kargil

Since the raiders were inactive on the Leh front during 77 Para Brigade's operations in Zoji La, Leh Brigade went
onto the offensive advancing from Tharu to Marol on the north bank of the Indus and from Chilling to Lamayuru to
Kargil on the south bank. Another detachment advanced along the Shyok River clearing opposition on that axis and
securing the Nubra Valley flank.

On the Zoji La front, 77 Parachute Brigade launched a deliberate attack and captured Matayan on 13 November and
Dras on 15 November. The brigade linked up on 24 November at Kargil with Indian troops advancing from Leh
while the enemy withdrew northwards toward Skardu. The Indian pursuit was halted by fierce enemy action at

Chathatang, 5 km ahead of the Marol fork of the Indus. The strong enemy defenses, on both banks of the Indus,
resisted till 1 January 1949 when a ceasefire was called.

References

[1] Prasad, S.N.; Dharm Pal (1987). History of Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948. New Delhi: History Department, Ministry of

Defence, Government of India, (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited), pp. 418..
[2] Sen, Maj Gen L. P. (1969). Slender Was the Thread: Kashmir Confrontation 1947-48 (http://books.google.co.in/

books?id=lYHXmx4cOUsC). New Delhi: Orient Longman, pp. 308. ISBN 0-86131-692-4. . Retrieved 4 August 2010.
[3] Sinha, Lt. Gen. S.K. (1977). Operation Rescue:Military Operations in Jammu & Kashmir 1947-49 (http://books.google.co.in/

books?id=SMwBAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Vision Books, pp. 174. ISBN 81-7094-012-5. . Retrieved 4 August 2010.
[4] Khanduri, Chandra B. (1969). Thimayya.An Amazing Life (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=ZWXfAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Centre

for Armed Historical Research, United Service Institution of India, New Delhi through Knowledge World, p. 137. ISBN 81-87966-36-X. .

Retrieved 6 August 2010.

Military operations in Poonch (1948)

68

Military operations in Poonch (1948)

Military operations took place in Poonch district,
then part of the princely state of Jammu and
Kashmir, in 1948 during the conflict in Jammu and
Kashmir between the Indian Army and Pakistani
forces. Poonch withstood a siege by the Pakistanis
from November 1947 till relieved by an Indian
offensive, Operation Easy on 20 November 1948.
The besieged garrison, commanded by Brig Pritam
Singh, was maintained by air supply. Military
operations ended with Poonch town and the eastern
part of Poonch district in Indian hands and western
Poonch in Pakistani hands.

Threat to Poonch

Poonch is a small town in Western Jammu, on the
confluence of Batar and Suran rivers, which forms
the Poonch river. In 1947, it was the seat of the Raja
who was a vassal of Maharaja Hari Singh of Jammu
and Kashmir. Prior to 1947, communications

with Poonch were through the Punjabi town of
Jhelum; towns in the east such as Rajauri,
Naushera and Jammu being connected only by
fair-weather tracks.

LINKUP OF POONCH BY 163 BDE
REINFORCEMENT BY 1 KUMAON
22 NOVA7

RECAPTURE BY 19
& 50 BDES
18 MAR 48

Wot to Scale

Operation Easy. Poonch link-up 1 November 1948 - 26 November 1948

Pakistan had targeted Poonch district, which had a large population of Muslim serving and retired soldiers, as an
important objective. Pakistani forces comprised regular soldiers, ex-servicemen and Pashtun tribals, along with

Muslim Poonchies inflamed by reports of massacre of Muslim refugees during the communal violence of

[3]:18
partition.

The attackers infiltrated Poonch, as part of Operation "Gulmarg", as a springboard to capture the Jammu region. The
town was threatened by the raiders when JAKFORCE HQ decided to reinforce it from the North.

The relief of Poonch from Jammu was exacerbated by the fact that it lay across many kilometers of hilly terrain with
poor communications. Paucity of troops, the need to secure the line of communication and to establish a firm base,
and, Prime Minister Nehru's decision to make the Kashmir Valley the immediate priority led to its relief much after
the fall of Mirpur, Kotli and Bhimber, towns with predominantly Hindu populations which were swelled by large
numbers of non-Muslim refugees. The massacre of the populations of the surrounding areas, not only swelled the
refugee population in Poonch, but also led to Pandit Nehru's insisting that it be held, albeit as a besieged outpost, on
political grounds over-ruling military advice to vacate it being untenable with the resources at hand.

Military operations in Poonch (1948)

69

Reinforcement of Poonch

[1]:91

A total of 40,000 refugees sheltered in Poonch fleeing from tribal atrocities in the West. Since the state forces

were grossly inadequate to fend off the raiders, a decision to reinforce the garrison was made by Maj Gen Kalwant
Singh, commander of JAKFORCE. An attempt by 50 Parachute Brigade, under Brig Y.S. Paranjpye, was planned.

[41-124

The brigade faced difficult terrain and tough opposition and was not able to relieve Poonch. 161st Infantry

Brigade, which had pushed the raiders back to Domel on the Muzzafarabad-Srinagar route, was tasked to link up
with Poonch from the North.

Just before Poonch was contacted by the raiders, the town was reinforced on 22 Nov 47 by a column from 161
Brigade which left behind an infantry battalion, 1st Battalion (Parachute), Kumaon Regiment (1 KUMAON) under
Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier) Pritam Singh who became the commander of Poonch garrison. There was also
an understrength brigade of J&K State Forces under Brig Kishen Singh already present in Poonch which came under
command of the Indian Army

[4]: 124

In January 1948, another battalion of infantry, the 3rd Battalion, 9 Gorkha Rifles (3/9 GR) was airlifted into Poonch

to bolster the defences

[1]:91

Siege of Poonch

Poonch was isolated by the raiders soon after the reinforcement. Brig
Pritam Singh organised the defenses with regular troops, stiffening
them with the State Forces and two ad hoc militia battalions, organised
from the refugees. The defenders kept the besiegers at bay by vigorous
patrolling and fierce small unit actions. An air strip suitable for
Dakotas was fashioned using the besieged civilians as labour.

On 12 December 1947, Wing Commander Mehar Singh, accompanied
by Air Vice Marshal Subroto Mukerjee, carried out a daring trial in a
Harvard on the makeshift airstrip. The same day, the first Dakotas
landed on Poonch airstrip carrying with them a complete section of
mountain artillery. Thereafter the fledgling Royal Indian Air Force
began what they called the "Punching" drive, an air bridge of Dakotas, first by day and later by night

Refugees awaiting evacuation by Dakota on
Poonch airstrip, December 1947.

[5][6]:304-05[7]

The air bridge flew in supplies and flew out refugees, despite interdiction by Pakistani mountain artillery, to counter
which Indian 25 pounder guns were flown in

[l]:92-93

[5]

The air force also attacked the Pakistani columns with Tempests and Harvards. Attacks on Poonch reduced during

summer due to the protracted operations in the Uri sector and were resumed in August 1948, necessitating an

Tll'93-94
immediate relief of Poonch.

Poonch was referred to as the "Tobruk of Kashmir", though unlike Tobruk, it never fell.

Military operations in Poonch (1948) 70

Operation Easy

A relieving force under Brig Yadunath Singh was assembled at Rajauri, which eventually grew to be division-sized,
comprising 5 and 19 Infantry Brigade as well as "Rajauri column" with supporting field artillery and two troops of
Sherman tanks of the Central India Horse. " The codename of the operation was "Operation EASY" to make
the complex operation appear psychologically easier to execute.

The operation commenced on the night of 6/7 November with 5 Brigade advancing on the right of the axis of
advance and 19 Brigade on the left flank. Bhimber Gali, captured by the two brigades, and Ramgarh fort, captured
by Rajauri Force, were the first features to be captured. In the meantime, 268 Infantry Brigade carried out OP

RANJIT in which it captured Pir Badesar, a tactically strong locality overlooking the Seri valley which protected
Jhangar from the north and posed a direct threat to Kotli and thus protected the flank of the advance from a Pakistani
threat to the line of communication near Chingas.

19 Infantry Brigade came across determined opposition at Point 5372, a feature southeast of Mendhar, which
guarded the route to Kotli. Continuing to demonstrate against Point 5372 as a ruse, the major force was switched to
the right flank where opposition was light. These two brigades then captured Pt 5982 and Topa ridge south of
Poonch. On 20 November, the Poonch garrison broke through to the south over the hills for the linkup. On 23
November, Mendhar was a captured in a pincer move by 19 Infantry Brigade from the South permitting the
Engineers to construct a jeep track via Mendhar to Poonch.

2

Operation Easy resulted in capture of 800 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ) of territory. Large
numbers of refugees, including 10,000 Muslims were able to get away and obtain relief from the state
administration.

Aftermath

While Poonch was secured, costly gains made by the Indian 161st Infantry Brigade and 77th Parachute Brigade in
the Uri sector were lost by ill-advised vacation of Led Gali and Pir Kanthi picquets in the Haji Pir region for the
winter by the Indian brigade commander responsible, allowing Pakistan to reoccupy these picquets and occupy a
large salient centred on the Haji Pir pass. Before any action could be taken by the Indians to reduce the salient,

[4] -289-291

ceasefire was declared on 02 Jan 1949 leaving these locations secure in Pakistani hands. Poonch continues

to be a border outpost on the Line of Control in between the Indian and Pakistani administered regions of Jammu and
Kashmir.

The decision to hold and relieve Poonch saved thousands of civilian lives but at the military cost of diverting troops
from the capture of Domel and Muzzafarabad during a period of vulne
capture of Mirpur and Bhimber, a more meaningful strategical gambit.

T41
from the capture of Domel and Muzzafarabad during a period of vulnerability as well as diverting troops from the

References

[1] Sinha, Lt. Gen. S.K. (1977). Operation Rescue -.Military Operations in Jammu & Kashmir 1947-49 (http://books.google.co.in/

books?id=SMwBAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Vision Books, pp. 174. ISBN 81-7094-012-5. . Retrieved 4 August 2010.
[2] Naushera (Nowshehra) is a hamlet near Rajauri in Jammu region. It should not be confused with Nowshera, a district and cantonment town in

the North West Frontier Province of Pakistan, or Naushera, a village in Khushab district of Pakistan.
[3] Prasad, S.N.; Dharm Pal (1987). History of Operations In Jammu and Kashmir 1947-1948. New Delhi: History Department, Ministry of

Defence, Government of India, (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited), pp. 418..
[4] Sen, Maj Gen L. P. (1969). Slender Was the Thread: Kashmir Confrontation 1947-48 (http://books.google.co.in/

books?id=lYHXmx4cOUsC). New Delhi: Orient Longman, pp. 308. ISBN 0-86131-692-4. . Retrieved 4 August 2010.
[5] Verma, Kunal. "Operation Poonching" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1948War/Poonch.html). Vayu Aerospace 2000.

Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 September 2010.
[6] Longer, V. (1974). Red coats to olive green:A history of the Indian Army, 1600-1974. Bombay: Allied Publishers, pp. 543. ISBN 85655 1309.
[7] Longer (1974) mentions that the aircraft was a Beechcraft while the Bharat Rakshak article, of Air Force origin and post-2000 vintage,

mentions "Harvard", an aircraft known to have been used extensively in the 1947 Indo-Pakistani operation in the Jammu sector.

Military operations in Poonch (1948) 71

External links

• Brig Pritam Singh,MC, Saviour of Poonch (http://poonch.nic.in/SaviourPch/SOP.htm). On Govt of India
website on Poonch, Jammu & Kashmir (http://poonch.nic.in/welcome.html). Accessed 24 August 2010.

72

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 was a culmination of skirmishes that took place between April 1965 and
September 1965 between Pakistan and India. This conflict became known as the Second Kashmir War fought by
India and Pakistan over the disputed region of Kashmir, the first having been fought in 1947. The war began
following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to

precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. The five-week war caused thousands of casualties on both sides. It

ri7i
ended in a United Nations (UN) mandated ceasefire and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.

Much of the war was fought by the countries' land forces in Kashmir and along the International Border between
India and Pakistan. This war saw the largest amassing of troops in Kashmir since the Partition of British India in
1947, a number that was overshadowed only during the 2001—2002 military standoff between India and Pakistan.
Most of the battles were fought by opposing infantry and armoured units, with substantial backing from air forces,

ri7i

and naval operations. Many details of this war, like those of other Indo-Pakistani Wars, remain unclear.

Pre-war escalation

Since Partition of British India in 1947, Pakistan and India
remained in contention over several issues. Although the Kashmir
conflict was the predominant issue dividing the nations, other
border disputes existed, most notably over the Rann of Kutch, a »■* f°/»|| fSWS

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barren region in the Indian state of Gujarat. The issue first arose in ss - "- \ r l~%^- : ^.

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1956 which ended with India regaining control over the disputed IL KESlrjSUKPraViB
area. Pakistani patrols began patrolling in territory controlled by

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India in January 1965, which was followed by attacks by both * S,S" .S^SS^I ,1K SWSSfi "5 £U«

U t U t O A 'I 1A^C P P T DMA C0.WHM«TIOKOH S . S n,IU>. .FT&, M «I?,v»L SoSSLISluD BOO '

countries on each others posts on 8 April 1965. Initially S^?««™iff Sf'S'K S"S

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involving border police from both nations, the disputed area soon A declassified us State Department letter that confirms

witnessed intermittent skirmishes between the countries' armed the existence of hundreds of "infiltrators" in the Indian

forces. In June 1965, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson state of Jammu and Kashmir. Dated during the events

successfully persuaded both countries to end hostilities and set up

a tribunal to resolve the dispute. The verdict, which came later in

1968, saw Pakistan awarded 350 square miles (900 km 2 ) of the Rann of Kutch, as against its original claim of 3500

square miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ).

After its success in the Rann of Kutch, Pakistan, under the leadership of General Ayub Khan, believed the Indian
Army would be unable to defend itself against a quick military campaign in the disputed territory of Kashmir as the
Indian military had suffered a loss to China in 1962. Pakistan believed that the population of Kashmir was
generally discontented with Indian rule and that a resistance movement could be ignited by a few infiltrating
saboteurs. Pakistan attempted to ignite the resistance movement by means of a covert infiltration, codenamed
Operation Gibraltar The Pakistani infiltrators were soon discovered, however, their presence reported by local
Kashmiris, and the operation ended in a complete failure.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

73

The war

On August 5, 1965 between 26,000 and 33,000 Pakistani soldiers crossed the Line of Control dressed as Kashmiri
locals headed for various areas within Kashmir. Indian forces, tipped off by the local populace, crossed the cease fire
line on August 15

[5]

Commander-in-Chief Pakistan Army, General

Muhammad Musa visiting the captured

Khemkaran Railway Station, India

[8][11]

Initially, the Indian Army met with considerable success, capturing
three important mountain positions after a prolonged artillery barrage.
By the end of August, however, both sides had relative progress;
Pakistan had made progress in areas such as Tithwal, Uri and Poonch
and India had captured the Haji Pir Pass, 8 km into
Pakistan- Administered Kashmir.

On 1 September 1965, Pakistan launched a counterattack, called
Operation Grand Slam, with the objective to capture the vital town of
Akhnoor in Jammu, which would sever communications and cut off
supply routes to Indian troops. Ayub Khan calculated that "Hindu
morale" (as he called Indian Army) won't stand more than two hard
attacks at the right time and place; although by this time

Operation Gibraltar had failed, as per his biographer Altaf Gauhar and
India had captured the Haji Pir Pass. L ° JL11J Attacking with an overwhelming ratio of troops and technically superior
tanks, Pakistan made gains against Indian forces, who were caught unprepared and suffered heavy losses. India
responded by calling in its air force to blunt the Pakistani attack. The next day, Pakistan retaliated, its air force
attacked Indian forces and air bases in both Kashmir and Punjab. India's decision to open up the theater of attack into
Pakistani Punjab forced the Pakistani army to relocate troops engaged in the operation to defend Punjab. Operation
Grand Slam therefore failed, as the Pakistan Army was unable to capture Akhnoor; it became one of the turning
points in the war when India decided to relieve pressure on its troops in Kashmir by attacking Pakistan further south.

India crossed the International Border on the Western front on
September 6, marking an official beginning of the war. On
September 6, the 15th Infantry Division of the Indian Army, under
World War II veteran Major General Prasad, battled a massive
counterattack by Pakistan near the west bank of the Ichogil Canal
(BRB Canal), which was a de facto border of India and Pakistan. The
General's entourage itself was ambushed and he was forced to flee his
vehicle. A second, this time successful, attempt to cross the Ichhogil
Canal was made over the bridge in the village of Barki, just east of
Lahore. These developments brought the Indian Army within the range
of Lahore International Airport. As a result, the United States
requested a temporary ceasefire to allow it to evacuate its citizens in
Lahore. However, the Pakistani counter attack took Khem Karan from
Indian forces which tried to divert the attention of Pakistanis from
Khem Karan by an attack on Bedian and the adjacent villages.

Lt. Col. Hari Singh of the India's 18th Cavalry

posing outside a captured Pakistani police station

(Barkee) in Lahore District.

The thrust against Lahore consisted of the 1st Infantry Division supported by the three tank regiments of the 2nd
Independent Armoured Brigade; they quickly advanced across the border, reaching the Ichhogil (BRB) Canal by 6
September. The Pakistani Army held the bridges over the canal or blew up those it could not hold, effectively
stalling any further advance by the Indians on Lahore. One unit of the Indian Jat Regiment, 3 Jat, had also crossed

the Ichogil canal and captured the town of Batapore (Jallo Mur to Pakistan) on the west side of the canal. The
same day, a counter offensive consisting of an armoured division and infantry division supported by Pakistan Air

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

74

Force Sabres forced the Indian 15th Division to withdraw to its starting point. Although 3 Jat suffered minimal
casualties, the bulk of the damage being taken by ammunition and stores vehicles, the higher commanders had no
information of 3 Jat's capture of Batapore and misleading information led to the command to withdraw from

ri4i

Batapore and Dograi to Ghosal-Dial. This move brought extreme disappointment to Lt-Col Desmond Hayde, CO
of 3 Jat. Dograi was eventually recaptured by 3 Jat on 21 September, for the second time but after a much harder
battle due to Pakistani reinforcements.

Destroyed or abandoned Pakistani Patton and

Sherman tanks on display near Khem Karan.

About 97 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or

On September 8, 1965, a company of 5 Maratha Light Infantry was
sent to reinforce a Rajasthan Armed Constabulary (RAC) post at
Munabao — a strategic hamlet about 250 kilometres from Jodhpur.
Their brief was simple. To hold the post and to keep Pakistan's infantry
battalions from overrunning the post at bay. But at Maratha Hill (in
Munabao) — as the post has now been christened — the Indian company
could barely manage to thwart the intense attack for 24 hours. A
company of 3 Guards with 954 heavy mortar battery ordered to
reinforce the RAC post at Munabao could never reach. The Pakistani
Air Force had strafed the entire area, and also hit a railway train
coming from B aimer with reinforcements near Gadra road railway
station. On September 10, Munabao fell into Pakistani hands, and
efforts to capture the strategic point did not succeed

[17]

captured by India during the Battle of Asal
Uttar.

On the days following September 9, both nations' premiere formations
were routed in unequal battles. India's 1st Armoured Division, labeled
the "pride of the Indian Army", launched an offensive towards Sialkot.
The Division divided itself into two prongs, was forced back by the Pakistani 6th Armoured Division at Chawinda
and was forced to withdraw after suffering heavy losses of nearly 100 tanks. The Pakistanis followed up their
success by launching Operation Windup, which forced the Indians back farther. Similarly, Pakistan's pride, the 1st
Armoured Division, pushed an offensive towards Khem Karan, with the intent to capture Amritsar (a major city in
Punjab, India) and the bridge on River Beas to Jalandhar.

The Pakistani 1st Armoured Division never made it past Khem Karan, however, and by the end of September 10 lay
disintegrated by the defences of the Indian 4th Mountain Division at what is now known as the Battle of Asal Uttar
(lit. meaning — "Real Answer", or more appropriate English equivalent — "Fitting Response"). The area became
known as 'Patton Nagar' (Patton Town), because of the large number of US-made Pakistani Patton tanks.
Approximately 97 Pakistani tanks were destroyed or abandoned, with only 32 Indian tanks destroyed or damaged.
The Pakistani 1st Armoured Division less 5th Armoured Brigade was next sent to Sialkot sector behind Pakistani 6th
Armoured Division where it didn't see action as 6th Armoured Division was already in process of routing Indian 1st
Armoured Division which was superior to it in strength.

The war was heading for a stalemate, with both nations holding territory of the other. The Indian army suffered
3,000 battlefield deaths, while Pakistan suffered 3,800. The Indian army was in possession of 710 miles 2 (1,800 km 2 )
of Pakistani territory and the Pakistan army held 210 mile 2 (550 km 2 ) of Indian territory. The territory occupied by

ri Q]

India was mainly in the fertile Sialkot, Lahore and Kashmir sectors, while Pakistani land gains were primarily
south in deserts opposite to Sindh and in Chumb sector near Kashmir in north.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

75

Aerial warfare

Further information: Indian Air Force#Second Kashmir War 1965 and Pakistan Air Force#Indo-Pakistani War of
1965

The war saw aircraft of the Indian Air Force (IAF) and the Pakistan Air
Force (PAF) engaging in combat for the first time since independence.
Though the two forces had previously faced off in the First Kashmir
War during the late 1940s, that engagement was very limited in scale
compared to the 1965 conflict.

The IAF was flying large numbers of Hawker Hunter,
Indian-manufactured Folland Gnats, de Havilland Vampires, EE
Canberra bombers and a squadron of MiG-21s. The PAF's fighter force
comprised 102 F-86F Sabres and 12 F-104 Starfighters, along with 24
B-57 Canberra bombers. During the conflict the PAF was

The F-86 Sabre was a front-line fighter of the
PAF.

out-numbered by around 5 : 1

[20]

The PAF's aircraft were largely of American origin, whereas the IAF flew an assortment of British and Soviet
aeroplanes. It has been widely reported that the PAF's American aircraft were superior to those of the IAF, but

according to some experts this is untrue because the IAF's MiG-21, Hawker Hunter and Folland Gnat fighters

T211
actually had higher performance than their PAF counter-part, the F-86 Sabre. Although the IAF's de Havilland

Vampire fighter-bombers were outdated in comparison to the F-86 Sabre, the Hawker Hunter fighters were superior

in both power and speed to the F-86 according to Air Cdre (retired) Sajjad Haider, who led the PAF's No. 19

Squadron in combat during the war.

[221
According to the Indians, the F-86 was vulnerable to the diminutive Folland Gnat, nicknamed "Sabre Slayer."

The PAF's F-104 Starfighter of the PAF was the fastest fighter operating in the subcontinent at that time and was

often referred to as "the pride of the PAF". However, according to Sajjad Haider, the F-104 did not deserve this

reputation. Being "a high level interceptor designed to neutralise Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000

feet," rather than engage in dogfights with agile fighters at low altitudes, it was "unsuited to the tactical environment

[231
of the region." In combat the starfighter was not as effective as the IAF's far more agile, albeit much slower,

[241 [25]

Folland Gnat fighter. Yet it zoomed into an on going dogfight between Sabres and Gnats, at supersonic speed,

successfully broke off the fight and caused the Gnats to egress. An IAF Gnat, piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal
Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned Pakistani airstrip at Pasrur and was captured by the Pakistan Army. The pilot
claimed that most of his equipment failed and even if he could get some chance on that, the star-fighters snuffed
it. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the Pakistan Air Force Museum, Karachi. Sqn Ldr Saad Hatmi

who flew the captured aircraft to Sargodha, and later tested and evaluated its flight performance, was of view that
Gnat was no "Sabre Slayer" when it came to dog fighting.

The two countries have made contradictory claims of combat losses
during the war and few neutral sources have verified the claims of
either country. The PAF claimed it shot down 104 IAF planes and lost
19 of its own, while the IAF claimed it shot down 73 PAF planes and

no]

lost 59. According to one independent source, the PAF flew 86 F-86
Sabres, 10 F-104 Starfighters and 20 B-57 Canberras in a parade soon
after the war was over. Thus disproving the IAF's claim of downing 73
PAF fighters, which at the time constituted nearly the entire Pakistani

front-line fighter force

[29]

Indian Folland Gnat on display at the PAF
Museum Gallery.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

76

Indian sources have pointed out that, despite PAF claims of losing only a squadron of combat craft, Pakistan sought
to acquire additional aircraft from Indonesia, Iraq, Iran, Turkey and China within 10 days of the beginning war. But
this could be explained by the 5:1 disparity in numbers faced by the PAF.

"India retained much of its air force in the East, against the possibility of Chinese intervention, and as a result the air
forces were quite evenly balanced in the West.'

"The PAF lost some 25 aircraft (11 in air combat), while the Indians lost 60 (25 in air combat). This was an
impressive result, but it was simply not good enough. Pakistan ended the war having depleted 17 percent of its front
line strength, while India's losses amounted to less than 10 percent. Moreover, the loss rate had begun to even out,
and it has been estimated that another three week's fighting would have seen the Pakistani losses rising to 33 percent
and India's losses totalling 15 percent. Air superiority was not achieved, and were unable to prevent IAF fighter
bombers and reconnaissance Canberras from flying daylight missions over Pakistan. Thus 1965 was a stalemate in

terms of the air war with neither side able to achieve complete air superiority

[30]

Tank battles

The 1965 war witnessed some of the largest tank battles since World

War II. At the beginning of the war, the Pakistani Army had both a

T311
numerical advantage in tanks, as well as better equipment overall.

Pakistani armour was largely American-made; it consisted mainly of

Patton M-47 and M-48 tanks, but also included many M4 Sherman

tanks, some M24 Chaffee light tanks and M36 Jackson tank destroyers,

equipped with 90 mm guns. The bulk of India's tank fleet were

older M4 Sherman tanks; some were up-gunned with the French high

velocity CN 75 50 guns and could hold their own, whilst some older

models were still equipped with the inferior 75 mm M3 L/40 gun.

Besides the M4 tanks, India fielded the British-made Centurion Tank

Mk 7, with the 105 mm Royal Ordnance L7 gun, and the AMX-13,

PT-76, and M3 Stuart light tanks. Pakistan fielded a greater number

and more modern artillery; its guns out-ranged those of the Indian

artillery, according to Pakistan's Major General T.H. Malik

Tanks of 1 8th Cavalry (Indian Army) on the
move during the 1 965 Indo-Pak War.

[33]

At the outbreak of war in 1965, Pakistan had about 15 armoured cavalry regiments, each with about 45 tanks in three
squadrons. Besides the Pattons, there were about 200 M4 Shermans re-armed with 76 mm guns, 150 M24 Chaffee
light tank and a few independent squadrons of M36B 1 tank destroyers. Most of these regiments served in Pakistan's
two armoured divisions, the 1st and 6th Armoured divisions — the latter being in the process of formation.

The Indian Army of the time possessed 17 cavalry regiments, and in the 1950s had begun modernizing them by the
acquisition of 164 AMX-13 light tanks and 188 Centurions. The remainder of the cavalry units were equipped with
M4 Shermans and a small number of M3A3 Stuart light tanks. India had only a single armoured division, the 1st
'Black Elephant' Armoured Division, which consisted of the 17th Horse (The Poona Horse), also called
'Fakhr-i-Hind' ('Pride of India'), the 4th Horse (Hodson's Horse), the 16th Cavalry, the 7th Light Cavalry, the 2nd
Lancers, the 18th Cavalry and the 62nd Cavalry, the two first named being equipped with Centurions. There was also
the 2nd Independent Armoured Brigade, one of whose three regiments, the 3rd Cavalry, was also equipped with

Centurions.

[341
Despite the qualitative and numerical superiority of Pakistani armour, Pakistan was outfought on the battlefield

by India, which made progress into the Lahore-Sialkot sector, whilst halting Pakistan's counteroffensive on

roc - ] [~Q£~]

Amritsar; they were sometimes employed in a faulty manner, such as charging prepared defenses during the

defeat of Pakistan's 1st Armoured Division at Assal Uttar.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 77

After Indians breached the Madhupur canal on September 11, the Khem Karan counter-offensive was halted,

roi

affecting Pakistan's strategy substantially. Although India's tank formations experienced some results, India's
attack at the Battle of Chawinda, led by its 1st Armoured Division and supporting units, was brought to a grinding

halt by the newly raised 6th Armoured Division (ex- 100th independent brigade group) in the Chawinda sector.

T371
Pakistan claimed that Indians lost 120 tanks at Chawinda. Neither the Indian nor Pakistani Army showed any

great facility in the use of armoured formations in offensive operations, whether the Pakistani 1st Armoured Division

at Asal Uttar or the Indian 1st Armoured Division at Chawinda. In contrast, both proved adept with smaller forces in

a defensive role such as India's 2nd Armoured Brigade at Asal Uttar and Pakistan's 25th Cavalry at Chawinda.

The Centurion battle tank, with its 105 mm gun and heavy armour, proved superior to the overly complex Pattons
and their exaggerated reputations. However, in the Sialkot sector outnumbered Pattons performed exceedingly
well in the hands of the 25th Cavalry and other regiments of the 6th Armoured Division, which exacted a
disproportionately heavy toll of Centurions from the Poona Horse and Hodson's Horse.

Naval hostilities

Further information: Operation Dwarka

Naval operations did not play a prominent role in the war of 1965. On September 7, a flotilla of the Pakistan Navy

under the command of Commodore S.M. Anwar, carried out a bombardment of the Indian Navy's radar station

coastal down of Dwarka, which was 200 miles (300 km) south of the Pakistani port of Karachi. Operation Dwarka,

as it is known, is a significant naval operation of the 1965 war contested as a nuisance raid by some.

[43]
The attack on Dwarka caused the Indian Navy led to questions being asked in India's parliament and subsequent

[44] [451

post-war modernization and expansion, with an increase in budget from Rs. 35 crores to Rs. 1 15 crores.

According to some Pakistani sources, one submarine, PNS Ghazi, kept the Indian Navy's aircraft carrier INS Vikrant
besieged in Bombay throughout the war. Indian sources claim that it was not their intention to get into a naval
conflict with Pakistan, and wished to restrict the war to a land-based conflict. Moreover, they note that the
Vikrant was in dry dock in the process of refitting. Some Pakistani defence writers have also discounted claims that
the Indian Navy was bottled up in Bombay by a single submarine, instead stating that 75% of the Indian Navy was
under maintenance in harbour.

Covert operations

The Pakistan Army launched a number of covert operations to infiltrate and sabotage Indian airbases. On

September 7, 1965, the Special Services Group (SSG) commandos were parachuted into enemy territory. According

to Chief of Army Staff General Muhammad Musa, about 135 commandos were airdropped at three Indian

airfields(Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur). The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster". Only 22

commandos returned to Pakistan as planned, 93 were taken prisoner (including one of the Commanders of the

[491
operations, Major Khalid Butt), and 20 were killed in encounters with the army, police or civilians The reason for

the failure of the commando mission is attributed to the failure to provide maps, proper briefings and adequate

planning or preparation

Despite failing to sabotage the airfields, Pakistan sources claim that the commando mission affected some planned
Indian operations. As the Indian 14th Infantry Division was diverted to hunt for paratroopers, the Pakistan Air Force
found the road filled with transport, and destroyed many vehicles.

[52]

India responded to the covert activity by announcing rewards for captured Pakistani spies or paratroopers.
Meanwhile, in Pakistan, rumors spread that India had retaliated with its own covert operations, sending commandos
deep into Pakistan territory, but these rumors were later determined to be unfounded.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

78

Assessment of losses

India and Pakistan make widely divergent claims about the damage they inflicted on each other and the amount of
damage suffered by them. The following summarizes each nation's claims.

Indian claims

Pakistani

, • [55]
claims

Independent Sources

Casualties

—

—

3,000 Indian soldiers, 3,800 Pakistani
soldiers

Combat

flying effort

4,073+ combat sorties

2,279 combat
sorties

Aircraft lost

59 IAF (official), 43 PAF. [57] In addition, Indian
sources claim that there were 13 IAF aircraft lost
in accidents, and 3 Indian civilian aircraft shot
down.

19PAF, 104 IAF

20 PAF, Pakistan claims India rejected
neutral arbitration.

Aerial
victories

17 + 3 (post war)

30

—

Tanks
destroyed

128 Indian tanks, 152 Pakistani tanks captured,
150 Pakistani tanks destroyed. Officially 471
Pakistani tanks destroyed and 38 captured

165 Pakistan
tanks [62]

Land area
won

2 2
1,500 mi (3,885 km ) of Pakistani territory

250 mi 2
(648 km 2 ) of
Indian territory

India held 7 1 mi 2 ( 1 , 1 840 km 2 ) of Pakistani

territory and Pakistan held

210 mi 2 (545 km 2 ) of Indian territory

Neutral assessments

There have been several neutral assessments of the losses incurred by both India and Pakistan during the war. Most
of these assessments agree that India had a upper hand over Pakistan when ceasefire was declared. Some of the
neutral assessments are mentioned below —

• According to the Library of Congress Country Studies conducted by the Federal Research Division of the United
States [63] -

The war was militarily inconclusive; each side held prisoners and some territory belonging to the other.
Losses were relatively heavy — on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops.
Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would
only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan. Most Pakistanis, schooled in the belief
of their own martial prowess, refused to accept the possibility of their country's military defeat by
"Hindu India" and were, instead, quick to blame their failure to attain their military aims on what they
considered to be the ineptitude of Ayub Khan and his government.

2 2

• TIME magazine reported that India held 690 mi of Pakistan territory while Pakistan held 250 mi of Indian
territory in Kashmir and Rajasthan. Additionally, Pakistan had lost almost half its armour temporarily. The
article further elaborates,

Severely mauled by the larger Indian armed forces, Pakistan could continue the fight only by teaming up
with Red China and turning its back on the U.N.

• Devin T. Hagerty wrote in his book "South Asia in world politics' —

The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts
of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened on September 22,
Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 79

• In his book "National identity and geopolitical visions", Gertjan Dijkink writes —

The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on
into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.

• An excerpt from Stanley Wolpert's India, summarizing the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965,

In three weeks the second Indo-Pak War ended in what appeared to be a draw when the embargo placed
by Washington on U.S. ammunition and replacements for both armies forced cessation of conflict before
either side won a clear victory. India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not
capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's
strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.

• In his book titled The greater game: India's race with destiny and China, David Van Praagh wrote —

2

India won the war. It gained 1840 km (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) of Pakistani territory:

2

640 km (unknown operator: u'strong 1 sq mi) in Azad Kashmir, Pakistan's portion of the state;

2 2

460 km (unknown operator: u'strong 1 sq mi) of the Sailkot sector; 380 km (unknown operator:

2

u'strong' sq mi) far to the south of Sindh; and most critical, 360 km (unknown operator:

2

u'strong' sq mi) on the Lahore front. Pakistan took 540 km (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) of

2 2

Indian territory: 490 km (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) in the Chhamb sector and 50 km
(unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) around Khem Karan.

• Dennis Kux's "India and the United States estranged democracies " also provides a summary of the war,

Although both sides lost heavily in men and material, and neither gained a decisive military advantage,
India had the better of the war. New Delhi achieved its basic goal of thwarting Pakistan's attempt to
seize Kashmir by force. Pakistan gained nothing from a conflict which it had instigated.

• BBC reported that the war served game changer in Pakistani politics,

The defeat in the 1965 war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal
opposition. This became a surge after his protege, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, deserted him and established the
Pakistan People's Party.

• "A region in turmoil: South Asian conflicts since 1947" by Robert Johnson mentions —

India's strategic aims were modest — it aimed to deny Pakistani Army victory, although it ended up in

2

possession of 720 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong' km ) of Pakistani territory for the loss of

2

just 220 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong' km ) of its own.

• An excerpt from William M. Carpenter and David G. Wiencek's "Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new
security environment —

A brief but furious 1965 war with India began with a covert Pakistani thrust across the Kashmiri
cease-fire line and ended up with the city of Lahore threatened with encirclement by Indian Army.
Another UN-sponsored cease-fire left borders unchanged, but Pakistan's vulnerability had again been
exposed.

• English historian John Keay's "India: A History" provides a summary of the 1965 war —

The 1965 Indo-Pak war lasted barely a month. Pakistan made gains in the Rajasthan desert but its main
push against India's Jammu-Srinagar road link was repulsed and Indian tanks advanced to within a sight
of Lahore. Both sides claimed victory but India had most to celebrate.

• Uk Heo and Shale Asher Horowitz write in their book "Conflict in Asia: Korea, China-Taiwan, and

T721
India-Pakistan" —

Again India appeared, logistically at least, to be in a superior position but neither side was able to
mobilize enough strength to gain a decisive victory.

T731

• Newsweek magazine, however, praised the Pakistani military's ability to hold of the much larger Indian Army.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 80

By just the end of the week, in fact, it was clear that the Pakistanis were more than holding their own.

Ceasefire

The United States and the Soviet Union used significant diplomatic tools to prevent any further escalation in the
conflict between the two South Asian nations. The Soviet Union, led by Premier Alexei Kosygin, hosted ceasefire
negotiations in Tashkent (now in Uzbekistan), where Indian Prime Minister Lai Bahadur Shastri and Pakistani
President Ayub Khan signed the Tashkent Agreement, agreeing to withdraw to pre-August lines no later than
February 25, 1966.

With declining stockpiles of ammunition, Pakistani leaders feared the war tilting in India's favor. Therefore, they

quickly accepted the ceasefire in Tashkent. Despite strong opposition from Indian military leaders, India bowed

T741
to growing international diplomatic pressure and accepted the ceasefire. On September 22, the United Nations

Security Council unanimously passed a resolution that called for an unconditional ceasefire from both nations. The

war ended the following day.

India's Prime Minister, Shastri, suffered a fatal heart attack soon after the declaration of the ceasefire. As a

consequence, the public outcry in India against the ceasefire declaration transformed into a wave of sympathy for the

[751
ruling Indian National Congress. The ceasefire was criticized by many Pakistanis who, relying on fabricated

official reports and the controlled Pakistani press, believed that the leadership had surrendered military gains. The

protests led to student riots. Pakistan State's reports had suggested that their military was performing admirably in

the war — which they incorrectly blamed as being initiated by India — and thus the Tashkent Declaration was seen as

[771

having forfeited the gains. Some recent books written by Pakistani authors, including one by ex-ISI chief titled

T7R1

"The Myth of 1965 Victory", allegedly exposed Pakistani fabrications about the war, but all copies of the book
were bought by Pakistan Army to prevent publication because the topic was "too sensitive".

India and Pakistan accused each other of ceasefire violations; India charged Pakistan with 585 violations in 34 days,

roil

while Pakistan countered with accusations of 450 incidents by India. In addition to the expected exchange of
small arms and artillery fire, India reported that Pakistan utilized the ceasefire to capture the Indian village of
Chananwalla in the Fazilka sector. This village was recaptured by Indian troops on 25 December. On October 10, a

TR21

B-57 Canberra on loan to the PAF was damaged by 3 SA-2 missiles fired from the IAF base at Ambala. A
Pakistani Army Auster was shot down on 16 December, killing one Pakistani army captain and on 2 February 1967,
an AOP was shot down by IAF Hunters.

The ceasefire remained in effect until the start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Intelligence failures

Strategic miscalculations by both India and Pakistan ensured that the war ended in a stalemate —

Indian miscalculations

Indian military intelligence gave no warning of the impending Pakistan invasion. The Indian Army failed to
recognize the presence of heavy Pakistani artillery and armaments in Chumb and suffered significant losses as a
result.

rssi
The "Official History of the 1965 War ", drafted by the Ministry of Defence of India in 1992, was a long

suppressed document that revealed other miscalculations. According to the document, on September 22 when the

Security Council was pressing for a ceasefire, the Indian Prime Minister asked commanding Gen. Chaudhuri if India

could possibly win the war, were he to delay accepting the ceasefire. The general replied that most of India's

frontline ammunition had been used up and the Indian Army had suffered considerable tank losses. It was

determined later that only 14% of India's frontline ammunition had been fired and India held twice the number of

tanks as Pakistan. By this time, the Pakistani Army had used close to 80% of its ammunition.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

81

Air Chief Marshal (retd) P.C. Lai, who was the Vice Chief of Air Staff during the conflict, points to the lack of

coordination between the IAF and the Indian army. Neither side revealed its battle plans to the other. The battle plans

drafted by the Ministry of Defence and General Chaudhari, did not specify a role for the Indian Air Force in the

order of battle. This attitude of Gen. Chaudhari was referred to by ACM Lai as the "Supremo Syndrome", a

[541
patronizing attitude sometimes held by the Indian army towards the other branches of the Indian Military.

Pakistani miscalculations

The Pakistani Army's failures started with the supposition that a generally discontented Kashmiri people, given the
opportunity provided by the Pakistani advance, would revolt against their Indian rulers, bringing about a swift and
decisive surrender of Kashmir. The Kashmiri people, however, did not revolt. Instead, the Indian Army was provided
with enough information to learn of Operation Gibraltar and the fact that the Army was battling not insurgents, as
they had initially supposed, but Pakistani Army regulars.

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PAGE TWO RUQVKH 15JB CONFIDENTIAL

OF PAK FORCES SEEMS TO HAVE CONVINCED MOST THAT ONLY PaK
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HOSTILITIES NOT SERIOUSLY FEARED Blj.'lAN-IN- STF

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The Pakistani Army also failed to recognize that the Indian policy
makers would order an attack on the southern sector in order to open a
second front. Pakistan was forced to dedicate troops to the southern
sector to protect Sialkot and Lahore instead using them to support
penetrating into Kashmir.

"Operation Grand Slam", which was launched by Pakistan to capture
Akhnoor, a town north-east of Jammu and a key region for
communications between Kashmir and the rest of India, was also a
failure. Many Pakistani commentators criticized the Ayub Khan
administration for being indecisive during Operation Grand Slam.
These critics claim that the operation failed because Ayub Khan knew
the importance of Akhnur to India (having called it India's "jugular
vein") and did not want to capture it and drive the two nations into an
all-out war. Despite progress being made in Akhnur, General Ayub
Khan relieved the commanding Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik
and replaced him with Gen. Yahya Khan. A 24-hour lull ensued the
replacement, which allowed the Indian army to regroup in Akhnur and
successfully oppose a lackluster attack headed by General Yahya
Khan. "The enemy came to our rescue", asserted the Indian Chief of
Staff of the Western Command. Later, Akhtar Hussain Malik criticized
Ayub Khan for planning Operation Gibraltar, which was doomed to
fail, and for relieving him of his command at a crucial moment in the war. Malik threatened to expose the truth about

■©

WHO SUFFERED BOMB DAMAGE RELIABLY REPORTED REFUSING CT0KEN1
RELIEF PAYMENTS OR COUTH IB'JTING RELIEF SUMS TO lOT't VOLUNTEERING
TO VIP VISITORS THAT LOSS OF HOUSE AND PROPERTY ACCEPTABLE
CONTRIBUTION TO JEHAD ABAINST HINDU INDIA.
ODDBALL AFTERMATH IS UNSHAKEABLE CONVICTION ALL STRATA THaT

::-, IV .■,F5hT» BY USA TO FIGHT PAKISTAN, WHILE MANY REFUSE BELIEl/E
PAHS HAD MODERN AMERICAN WEAPONS. NEWS PHOTO OF US AMMUNITION
REPEATEDLY CITED AS PROOF DIVERSION US AID FROM PAKISTAN TO INDIA,
ALTHO SOME WILL AW IT US ONLY MISGUIDED. DECEIVED BY WILY HINDUS.
XASMIR SETTLEMENT: M AN-IN-STREET PARROTS COMMITMENT TO FIGHT
FOH THOUSAND YEARS TO WIN SELF DETERMINATION FOR KASHMIRI
ALTHOUGH UNABL7 t;!T ICULATE WHY * AS MIR SO VITAL TO PAKISTAN,
INTELLIGENT PEOPLE RECOGNIZE SETTLEMENT CANNOT BE ON STATED
PAK TERMS, HCPt WITHOUT MUCH CONVICTION THAT WORLD STATESMEN
CAN DEVISE FORMULA WHICH INDIANS CAN ACCEPT. THESE CONTACTS
HECOBNTZE THAT TINE BAY .BE NEEDED TO FIND COMMON GROUND, BUT
TELL US PAKS CANT WAIT'FOR SCME ASSURANCE OF PROGRESS TOWARD
COHF.IDEBTIAL â– 

Telegram from the Embassy of the United States
in Karachi: "Continuing propaganda regarding

achievements of Pak forces seems to have

convinced most that only Pak forbearance saved

the Indians from disaster."

the war and the army's failure, but later dropped the idea for fear of being banned

[83]

Some authors have noted that Pakistan might have been emboldened by a war game — conducted in March 1965, at
the Institute of Defence Analysis, USA. The exercise concluded that, in the event of a war with India, Pakistan
would win. Other authors like Stephen Philip Cohen, have consistently commented that the Pakistan Army

had "acquired an exaggerated view of the weakness of both India and the Indian military... the 1965 war was a
shock".

Pakistani Air Marshal and Commander-in-Chief of PAF during the war, Nur Khan, later said that the Pakistan Army,

ro-7"|roo"|

and not India, should be blamed for starting the war. However propaganda in Pakistan about the war

continued; the war was not rationally analyzed in Pakistan, with most of the blame being heaped on the

leadership and little importance given to intelligence failures that persisted until the debacle of the 1971 war, when
then East Pakistan was invaded by India and seceded from West Pakistan, leading to the creation of Bangladesh.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 82

Involvement of other nations

Pakistan and the United States had signed an Agreement of Cooperation in 1959 under which the United States
agreed to take "appropriate action, including the use of armed forces" in order to assist the Government of Pakistan
at its request. However, following the start of the 1965 war, the United States was of the view that the conflict
was largely Pakistan's fault and therefore, it cut all military supplies to the country. However, Pakistan did receive
significant support from Iran, Indonesia and People's Republic of China.

Both before and during the war, the People's Republic of China had been a major military associate of Pakistan and

had invariably admonished India, with whom it had fought a war in 1962. There were also reports of Chinese troop

[92]
movements on the Indian border to support Pakistan. As such, India agreed to the UN mandate in order to avoid a

war on both borders.

India's participation in the Non-Aligned Movement yielded little support from its members. Despite close relations

between with India, the Soviet Union was more neutral than most other nations during the war and even invited both

[93] [94]
nations to talks that it would host in Tashkent.

Aftermath
India

Despite the declaration of a ceasefire, India was perceived as the victor due to its success in halting the

[95]
Pakistan-backed insurgency in Kashmir. In its October 1965 issue, the TIME magazine quoted a Western official

assessing the consequences of the war —

Now it's apparent to everybody that India is going to emerge as an Asian power in its own right.

In light of the failures of the Sino-Indian War, the outcome of the 1965 war was viewed as a "politico-strategic"

[97]
victory in India. The Indian premier, Lai Bahadur Shastri, was hailed as a national hero in India.

While the overall performance of the Indian military was praised, military leaders were criticized for their failure to

effectively deploy India's superior armed forces so as to achieve a decisive victory over Pakistan. In his book

"War in the modern world since 1815", noted war historian Jeremy Black said that though Pakistan "lost heavily"

during the 1965 war, India's hasty decision to call for negotiations prevented further considerable damage to the

[99]
Pakistan Armed Forces. He elaborates —

India's chief of army staff urged negotiations on the ground that they were running out ammunition and
their number of tanks had become seriously depleted. In fact, the army had used less than 15% of its
ammunition compared to Pakistan, which had consumed closer to 80 percent and India had double the
number of serviceable tanks.

As a consequence, India focussed on enhancing communication and coordination within and among the triservices of
the Indian Armed Forces. Partly as a result of the inefficient information gathering preceding the war, India
established the Research and Analysis Wing for external espionage and intelligence. Major improvements were also
made in command and control to address various shortcomings and the positive impact of these changes was clearly
visible during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 when India achieved a decisive victory over Pakistan within two
weeks.

China's repeated threats to intervene in the conflict in support of Pakistan increased pressure on the government to
take an immediate decision to develop nuclear weapons. Despite repeated assurances, the United States did little
to prevent extensive use of American arms by Pakistani forces during the conflict which irked India. At the same
time, the United States and United Kingdom refused to supply India with sophisticated weaponry which further
strained the relations between the West and India. These developments led to a significant change in India's

foreign policy — India, which had previously championed the cause of non-alignment, distanced itself further from
Western powers and developed close relations with the Soviet Union. By the end of 1960s, the Soviet Union

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 83

emerged as the biggest supplier of military hardware to India. From 1967 to 1977, 81% of India's arms imports
were from the Soviet Union. After the 1965 war, the arms race between India and Pakistan became even more
asymmetric and India was outdistancing Pakistan by far.

Pakistan

At the conclusion of the war, many Pakistanis considered the performance of their military to be positive. September
6 is celebrated as Defence Day in Pakistan, in commemoration of the successful defence of Lahore against the Indian
army. The performance of the Pakistani Air Force, in particular, was praised.

However, the Pakistani government was accused by foreign analysts of spreading disinformation among its citizens
regarding the actual consequences of the war. In his book "Mainsprings of Indian and Pakistani foreign

policies", S.M. Burke writes —

After the Indo-Pakistani war of 1965 the balance of military power had decisively shifted in favor of
India. Pakistan had found it difficult to replace the heavy equipment lost during that conflict while her
adversary, despite her economic and political problems, had been determinedly building up her strength.

Most observers agree that the myth of a mobile, hard hitting Pakistan Army was badly dented in the war, as critical
breakthroughs were not made. Several Pakistani writers criticized the military's ill-founded belief that their

"martial race" of soldiers could defeat "Hindu India" in the war. Rasul Bux Rais, a Pakistani political analyst

t [HO]
wrote —

The 1965 war with India proved that Pakistan could neither break the formidable Indian defenses in a
blitzkrieg fashion nor could she sustain an all-out conflict for long.

Pakistan airforce on the other hand gained a lot of credibility and reliability among Pakistan military and
international war writers for successful defence of lahore and other important areas of Pakistan and heavy retaliation
to India on the next day. The alertness of the airforce was also related to the fact that some pilots were scrambled 6
times in less than an hour on indication of Indian air raids. Pakistan airforce along with the army is celebrated for on
Defence day and Airforce day in commemoration of this in Pakistan (September 6 and 7 respectively).

Moreover, Pakistan had lost more ground than it had gained during the war and, more importantly, failed to achieve
its goal of capturing Kashmir; this result has been viewed by many impartial observers as a defeat for
Pakistan. [112][113][114]

Many high ranking Pakistani officials and military experts later criticized the faulty planning of Operation Gibraltar
that ultimately led to the war. The Tashkent declaration was also criticized in Pakistan, though few citizens realised
the gravity of the situation that existed at the end of the war. Political leaders were also criticized. Following the
advice of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's foreign minister, Ayub Khan had raised very high expectations among the
people of Pakistan about the superiority — if not invincibility — of its armed forces, but Pakistan's inability to
attain its military aims during the war, created a political liability for Ayub. The defeat of its Kashmiri ambitions
in the war led to the army's invincibility being challenged by an increasingly vocal opposition.

One of the most far reaching consequences of the war was the wide-scale economic slowdown in Pakistan.
The cost of the 1965 war put an end to the impressive period economic growth Pakistan had experienced during
early 1960s. Between 1964 and 1966, Pakistan's defence spending rose from 4.82% to 9.86% of GDP, putting
tremendous strain on Pakistan's economy. By 1970—71, defence spending comprised a whopping 55.66% of
government expenditure.

Pakistan was surprised by the lack of support by the United States, an ally with whom the country had signed an
Agreement of Cooperation. USA declared its neutrality in the war by cutting off military supplies to both sides,
leading Islamabad to believe that they were "betrayed" by the United States. After the war, Pakistan would
increasingly look towards China as a major source of military hardware and political support.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 84

Another negative consequence of the war was the growing resentment against the Pakistani government in East
Pakistan (present day Bangladesh), particularly for West Pakistan's obsession with Kashmir. Bengali leaders
accused the central government of not providing adequate security for East Pakistan during the conflict, even though

M221

large sums of money were taken from the east to finance the war for Kashmir. In fact, despite some Pakistan Air

r 1231

Force attacks being launched from bases in East Pakistan during the war, India did not retaliate in that sector,

although East Pakistan was defended only by an understrenghted infantry division (14 Division), sixteen planes and

ri24i
no tanks. Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was critical of the disparity in military resources deployed in East and West

Pakistan, calling for greater autonomy for East Pakistan, which ultimately led to the Bangladesh Liberation War and

another war between India and Pakistan in 1971.

Military awards
Battle honours

After the war, a total of number of 16 battle honours and 3 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian
Army, the notable amongst which are:

• Jammu and Kashmir 1965 (theatre honour) • Burki • Kalidhar

• Punjab 1965 (theatre honour) • Dograi • OP Hill

• Rajasthan 1965 (theatre honour) • Hajipir • Phillora

• Assal Uttar

Gallantry awards

For bravery, the following soldiers were awarded the highest gallantry award of their respective countries, the Indian
award Param Vir Chakra and the Pakistani award Nishan-e-Haider:

India

• Company Quarter Master Havildar Abdul Hamid (Posthumous)

• Lieutenant-Colonel Ardeshir Burzorji Tarapore (Posthumous)

Pakistan

• Major Raja Aziz Bhatti Shaheed (Posthumous)

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[119] Greg Cashman, Leonard C. Robinson. An introduction to the causes of war: patterns of interstate conflict from World War I to Iraq.

Rowman & Littlefield, 2007. ISBN 0-7425-5510-0.
[120] Richard N. Haass "Economic Sanctions and American Diplomacy", 1998, Council on Foreign Relations, ISBN 0-87609-212-1 ppl72
[121] Makers of Modern Strategy: From Machiavelli to the Nuclear Age By Peter Paret, 1986, Oxford University Press, ISBN 0-19-820097-8

pp802
[122] Rounaq Jahan (1972). Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-23 1-03625-6. Pg 166—167
[123] Reflections on two military presidents By M.P. Bhandara (http://www.dawn.eom/2005/12/25/ed.htm#4) December 25, 2005, Dawn

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

[124] The Pakistan Army From 1965 to 1971 Yahya Khan as Army Chief- 1966- 1971 (http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/nov/pak-army.

htm) by Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin
[125] Singh, Sarbans (1993). Battle Honours of the Indian Army 1757 - 1971 (http://books.google.com/books/about/

Battle_honours_of_the_Indian_Army_1757_l.html?id=5ATfAAAAMAAJ). New Delhi: Vision Books, pp. 242-256. ISBN 81-7094-115-6. .

Retrieved 3 November 201 1.

Further reading

• First & Further reflections on the second Kashmir War (South Asia series) — 2 books by Louis Dupree.

• Gupta, Hari Ram (1967). India-Pakistan war, 1965 (http://books. google. com/books ?id=3jAxNbnltkEC&
source=gbs_navlinks_s). 1 (1 ed.). Hariyana Prakashan. ISBN B0006FFBK8.

• Mohan, Jagan; Chopra, Samir (2005) [2005]. The India Pakistan Air War of 1965 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=Bz9uAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s) (1 ed.). Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-641-7.

• Berindranath, Dewan (1966). The war with Pakistan: A pictorial narration of the fifty days which rocked the
sub-continent (http://books. google. com/books?id=rtdOAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Asia Press.

• Ismail Siddiqui, Muhammad (1983). Die to live: A selection of short stories based on the 1965 Indo-Pakistan war
(http://books. google. com/books?id=bZ-QGAAACAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s) (1 ed.). Wajidalis.

ISBN B0006EL2OI.

• Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, its role and rule: a history of the Pakistan Army from Independence to
Kargil, 1 967-1 999 (http ://books .google . com/books ?id=B 2s aA A A AC A AJ& source=gbs_navlinks_s) .
RoseDog Books. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.

• Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military (http://books.google.com/
books?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&lpg=PPl&pg=PPl#v=onepage&q=&f=false). United Book Press.
ISBN 0-87003-214-3, 0-87003-223-2.

• Singh, Lt. Gen. Harbaksh (1991). War despatches: Indo-Pak Conflict, 1965 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=pBpuAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Lancer InterConsult, Inc. ISBN 81-7062-117-8.

• Praval, Maj K C (2009). Indian Army after Independence (http://books.google.com/
books?id=wAlxPgAACAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Lancer InterConsult, Inc. ISBN 1-935501-10-0.

• Asghar Khan, Mohammed (1979). The first round: Indo-Pakistan War, 1965 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=FJ7cAAAACAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Islamic Information Services. ISBN 0-906041-11-2.

• Faruquii, Ahmad (2003). Rethinking the national security of Pakistan: the price of strategic myopia (http://
books. google. com/books ?id=ElHfAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Ashgate Publishing.

ISBN 0-7546-1497-2.

• Singh, Bhupinder (1982). 1965 war, role of tanks in India-Pakistan war (http://books.google.com/
books?id=6DDHAAAAIAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). B.C. Publishers. ISBN B0000CQ9GQ.

• Brines, Russell (1968). The Indo-Pakistan Conflict (http://books. google.com/books ?id=BfxtAAAAMAAJ&
source=gbs_navlinks_s). Pall Mall P. ISBN 0-269-16232-1.

• Fricker, John (1979). Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965 (http://books.google.com/
books?id=RPttAAAAMAAJ&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Ian Allan. ISBN 0-7110-0929-5.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

Sources and external links

Indo-Pak war of '65. Who really started it? (http://www.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/

dawn/news/pakistan/16-the-guns-of-august-hs-06)

WTF - Indo-Pak war of '65. Why did we go to war? (http://paki.in/wtf/2008/02/16/

indo-pak-war-of-65-why-did-we-go-to-war/ -)

IAF Combat Kills — 1965 war (http://orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1965war_kills.pdf), (Center for Indian

Military History)

Mohammed Muhammad Musa (1983). My Version: India-Pakistan War 1965. Wajidalis.

United States Library of Congress Country Studies — India (http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r7frd/

cstdy : @ field(DOCID+inO 1 89))

Official History of the Indian Armed Forces in the 1965 War with Pakistan (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/

LAND-FORCES/Army/History/1965War/PDF/index.html)

Story of Pakistan (http://www.storyofpakistan.com/articletext.asp?artid=A068&Pg=5)

GlobalSecurity.org Indo-Pakistan War 1965 (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/

indo-pak_1965.htm)

Pakistan Columnist AH Amin analyzes the war. (http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/september/1965.htm)

Grand Slam — A Battle of lost Opportunities, Maj (Retd) Agha Humayun Amin (http://www.defencejournal.

com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm) — very detailed roll of events and analysis

A Critical Look at the 1965 Operations, Air Chief Marshall (retd) PC Lai (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/

IAF/History/1965War/Lal-65.htm) — dispassionate analysis

The India-Pakistan War, 1965: 40 Years On (http://in.rediff.com/news/indpakwar05.htm) — From Rediff.com

Lessons of the 1965 War from Daily Times (Pakistan) (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.

asp?page=story_7-9-2005_pg3_l)

Pak Army's Kargil like disaster of 1965 — South Asia Tribune (http://www.satribune.com/archives/sept04/

Pl_habookl.htm)

Spirit of '65 & the parallels with today — Ayaz Amir (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/20051021.htm)

Air Commodore Syed Sajjad Haider on 1965 war and surrounding events (http://www.ummat.com.pk/

report_ummat/10022008-misc_reports/interview- 10022008b.html)

90

Aerial warfare

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 saw the Indian and Pakistani Air Forces engaged in large-scale aerial combat
against each other for the first time since the Partition in 1947. The war took place during the course of September
1965 and saw both air forces conduct defensive and offensive operations over Indian and Pakistani airspace. Both
countries made contradictory claims regarding the number of losses that they suffered and the number of planes that
they claimed to have shot down. Indian losses have been placed at between 59 and 110, while Pakistani losses were
between 18 and 43.

Background

The war began in early August 1965 and initially the fighting was confined mainly to the ground. Later, however,
as the war progressed, the war took on another dimension as the two sides began air operations against each other.
Although the two forces had previously taken part in the First Kashmir War which had occurred shortly after
Partition, that engagement had been limited in scale compared to the 1965 conflict and the air operations that both
sides had undertaken were limited and largely confined to interdiction and other strategic purposes such as
re-supply and troop transport operations. Although there had been one incident where Indian fighter aircraft
intercepted a Pakistani transport, there had been no significant air-to-air combat. During the 1965 conflict,
however, the PAF flew a total 2,364 sorties while the IAF flew 3,937 sorties.

All out War erupted between India and Pakistan, and during the vicious 17 day conflict PAF flew defensive CAPs
over its own bases, offensive counter air missions against Indian airfields, and close - support and interdiction
sorties, to which the Indians responded in kind. India retained much of its air force in the East, against the possibility
of Chinese intervention, and as a result the air forces were quite evenly balanced in the West.

Main battle

The aerial phase of the war began on September 1, 1965, when the Indian Air Force responded to an urgent call for
air strikes against the Pakistani Army, which had launched an attack known as Operation Grand Slam. The IAF
scrambled 3 waves of four Vampire FB Mk 52s. The first wave strafed Pakistani positions and attacked Pakistani
tanks and ground targets. One Vampire was lost to ground fire. The PAF scrambled two F-86 Sabres armed with
Sidewinder missiles. These Sabres entered the battlefield just as the second wave of Vampires were coming in for
the attack. The post World War II vintage Vampires were no match for the PAF Sabres and in the ensuing dogfight,
three of the four Vampires were shot down by the Sabres. As the Sabres cleared out, the third wave of Vampires
came in and continued attacking ground targets.

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965

91

The appearance of the Sabres necessitated a move by the IAF to send
the Folland Gnat fighters to the forward base of Pathankot. IAF used
Mysteres to lure two Sabres to attack them with four Gnats. One sabre
had to go back without entering the fight when the pilot couldn't
jettison the fuel tanks. The other one flown by Fit Lt Yusuf Ali, who
spotted the Gnats just before attacking the Mysteres, positioned
himself behind them. Just as he got his cross-hairs on them, he felt
thuds on his own jet from two more Gnats sandwiching him in between
as well as informing the front ones to break off. He was surrounded in
a cloud of Gnats repeatedly being attacked. The sole lurking Lockheed
F-104 Starfighter in the area was pointed to the dog fight by base
control along with scrambling another one from base. The first

Starfighter crossed through the dog fight at supper sonic speed to strike sheer awe in the adversaries. The trick

T71
worked and the Gnats started egressing. IAF's Squadron Leader Trevor J. Keelor of No. 23 Squadron claimed to

have shot down the F-86 Sabre on that day (September 3), claiming the first air combat victory to the IAF of the war

and subsequently received the Vir Chakra. However the sabre he 'shot down' was flown to base in badly damaged

condition and rough landed at base without further damage. PAF later released its pictures to disappoint IAF. The

Sabre pilot, Fit Lt Yusuf Ali, was given Sitara-e-Jurat for dog fighting with six Gnats (while his wingman was

ordered to leave since he couldn't jettison his fuel tanks) and bringing the damaged Sabre back home safely

Indian Folland Gnat on display at the PAF
Museum Gallery.

[7]

In the same incident, an IAF Gnat, piloted by Squadron Leader Brij Pal Singh Sikand, landed at an abandoned
Pakistani airstrip at Pasrur and was captured by the PAF. The Two Lockheed F-104 Starfighters, that closed in at

r71T81

supper sonic speed, forced the Gnat down. This Gnat is displayed as a war trophy in the Pakistan Air Force

[71
Museum, Karachi. Sqn Ldr Saad Hatmi who flew the captured aircraft to Sargodha, and later tested and evaluated

T71
its flight performance, was of view that Gnat was no 'Sabre Slayer' when it came to dog fighting.

During the conflict, the Pakistani F-86 Sabre Flying Ace, Muhammad Mahmood Alam shot down nine Indian
aircraft as well as claiming two others as 'probable'. Five of Hawker Hunter aircraft were shot down in one minute
with four being in first 30 seconds

[9][10][11][12][13]

On September 6, the Indian Army crossed the border at Lahore to
relieve pressure off the Chamb Jaurian sector. On the evening of
the same day, the PAF responded with attacks on Indian airfields
at Pathankot and Halwara. The attack on Pathankot was successful
and the IAF lost nearly 10 aircraft on the ground. The attack on
Halwara was unsuccessful; two of the attacking raiders were shot
down for the loss of two Indian Hunters. Both the Pakistani pilots
were killed in the action. One of them was Squadron Leader
Sarfaraz Rafiqui who had shot down two Vampires on September

1141

1 while the other was Flight Lieutenant Yunus Ahmed. Before

1141
being shot down, Rafiqui shot down one of the Hunters. He

was later posthumously awarded the Sitara-e-Jurat and the Hilal-i-Jurat. Both the Indian pilots, Pingle and Gandhi,

PAF F-86 Sabres

survived as they ejected near their base

[15]

J16]

On September 7, 1965 PAF parachuted 135 Special Services Group (SSG) para commandos at three Indian

ri7i

airfields (Halwara, Pathankot and Adampur). The daring attempt proved to be an "unmitigated disaster". Only 10

1171
commandos were able to returned to Pakistan, and rest of them were taken as prisoners of war (including one of

the Commanders of the operations, Major Khalid Butt), at Halwara and Adampur these troops landed in residential

areas where the villagers caught and handed them over to police

[17]

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965 92

Also on September 7, the IAF mounted over 33 sorties against the heavily guarded PAF airfield complex at
Sargodha. The IAF lost two Mysteres and three Hunters due to the defence mounted by the Pakistan Air

Force's local squadrons. One of the crippled Mysteres got involved in a dogfight with an F-104 Starfighter and shot

each other down, both the pilots ejected and the Indian was captured, made a POW and released after the war.

T211
The Indian pilot, Squadron Leader Ajjamada Boppaya Devayya, was later awarded the Maha Vir Chakra 23 years

later after his feat was revealed by an author appointed by PAF to write their story on 1965 war.

September 7 also marked the day when the PAF attacked IAF airfields in the Eastern Sector. During the PAF's raid

[20] [221

on Kalaikunda Indian pilot, Flight Lieutenant A T Cooke, engaged four Pakistani Sabres, shooting down one

[231
while flying at tree-top height and making another a write off in the process.

The war lessened in intensity after September 8 and there were occasional clashes between the IAF and the PAF.
Both air forces now changed their doctrine from air interdictions to ground attack and concentrated their efforts on
knocking out soft skin targets and supply lines like wagons carrying ammunitions and armoured vehicles. During the

conflict IAF Canberras raided a few of the Pakistani bases. On September 10, one Mystere was downed by

T241
anti-aircraft fire in Pakistan but the pilot ejected safely.

One PAF F-86 Sabre was downed by anti-aircraft fire on September 13 when it attacked Gurdaspur Railway Yard

T251 T141

and its pilot was killed. An Indian Gnat was also shot down by PAF F-86 Sabre, although the pilot managed to

eject safely. On September 14, Indian Canberras undertook the deepest penetration of Pakistani airspace of the war,

attacking Pakistani bases around Peshawar and Kohat. Rather than bombing the Peshawer airstrip, however, IAF

bombers mistook the mall road in Peshawer as the runway and dropped there bombs there by accident. The PAF

admits that the IAF came very close to annihilating its entire B-57 bombers. On their return mission, the Canberras

were intercepted by a Pakistani F-104, although they managed to evade the Starfighter and returned home safely.

However, one Pakistani F-86 Sabre crashed, killing the pilot, while conducting an evasive maneuvere in an attempt

to escape pursuit from Wing Commander Bharat Singh, as he tried to defend the Canberra bombers. Singh was later

credited with an aerial victory for this incident. Later, one Pakistani B-57 was shot down by anti-aircraft fire over

Adampur, although both of its crew managed to eject safely and remained POWs.

On September 15, the PAF employed a number of its C-130s transport aircraft as bombers which proved

T251 M41 T141

unsuccessful and two of them were shot by IAF. The following day, one Hunter and an F-86 Sabre were
shot down over Halwara. The IAF pilot was killed in the encounter, although the Pakistani pilot ejected and spent the
rest of the war as a POW. A Pakistani Cessna was also shot down that day, as well as an Auster observation
aircraft. On September 18, one Sabre was shot down by a Gnat over Amritsar, the matter was reported by the
Collector, who had witness the entire dogfight. The same day a Pakistani Sabre shot down a civilian Indian
aircraft even after the civilian plane indicated its identity assuming it to be a reconnaissance mission. It became even
more notable when after 60 years, the PAF pilot wrote a letter to apologize for shooting the aircraft to its Pilot's

[27] _ r27ir2Sir2Ql

daughter. The aircraft had been carrying the then Gujarat Chief Minister Balwant Rai and his family.

On September 19, one Gnat and two Sabres were downed over Chawinda. One of the Sabres that were shot
down was credited to Squadron Leader Denzil Keelor, the brother of Trevor Keelor, who was credited with the
first Indian aerial victory of the war. The following day, another two Hunters and an F-86 Sabre were lost
over Kasur, Pakistan.

At one stage the IAF was operating 200 air missions simultaneously. IAF Folland Gnats of Nos 9 and 23 squadrons
played a significant role in major air battles.

T311
On September 21, IAF Canberras carried out a daring daylight strike into Pakistan at the radar complex in Badin.

The raid proved to be successful. Under the command of Wing Commander Peter Wilson, six Canberras from No. 16

Squadron took off from Agra, over a 1,000 km from Bladin and proceeded towards the radar complex at low

T311
level. About 80 miles short of the target, one Canberra climbed to an altitude of 10,000 feet in order to act as a

decoy before returning to base. The other five Canberras continued on towards the target. The flight then separated

and four of the aircraft approached the target in two sections, each two minutes apart, at low level before climbing to

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965 93

7,000 feet from where they carried out bombing runs, dropping approximately 10,000 lbs of explosives. Wilson then
approached from the south at an altitude of just 30 feet firing a salvo of 68mm rockets at the radar dome.

ri4i
On the same day a PAF F-104 intercepted a Canberra bomber on its way back from Sargodha and shot it down,

while one Hunter pilot who was the son of Chief of the Indian Army was shot down by anti-aircraft fire, he ejected

F321 rii

and was taken POW. The ceasefire was declared on the night of September 22, 1965.

Outcome

There are conflicting claims by either side on this issue. Pakistani sources suggest that Indian losses were in the

r51T331
range of 59—110 and Pakistani losses were around 18—43. Recent works have, however, attempted to move

beyond the raw statistics of the number of losses each side incurred, arguing that in terms of aircraft lost to sorties

flown, the Indian Air Force's attrition rate (1.5%) was lower than the Pakistani attrition rate (1.82%). Arguably this

indicates that had the war continued, the PAF would have found it increasingly difficult to sustain operations at the

same level. Nevertheless, a similar argument can be made about the IAF also, although it did have a significant

size advantage that might have proved telling if the war had been prolonged.

Another factor which makes it difficult to determine the outcome of the 1965 air war is the issue of aircraft lost in
the air in air-to-air combat or to ground fire as opposed to aircraft lost on the ground due to bombing. Indian
sources claimed that a large number of Indian aircraft losses occurred on the ground during the attacks on

[341

Kalaikkunda and Pathankot — up to 60 per cent by some accounts

Results of Air Combat: Indian sources have claimed that India lost 24 aircraft in air-to-air combat and ground-to-air
fire, while PAF lost 37 aircraft in air-to-air combat. Air Commodore Jasjit Singh of India claimed that Pakistan
ended the war having depleted 17 percent of its front line strength, while India's losses amounted to less than 10
percent. Moreover, the loss rate had begun to even out, and it has been estimated that another three week's fighting
would have seen the Pakistani losses rising to 33 percent and India's losses totalling 15 percent.

Learning the lessons

Much of the lessons of the 1965 war lead India to refine tactics which proved decisive in the 1971 war. Pakistani
forces failed to take account of the extent to which they had relied on two factors which the IAF could not take for
granted - complete ground based defensive radar coverage and an adequate supply of air-to-air missiles. Much effort
was expended in India to remedy these deficiencies before 1971.

With Soviet aid, India established a modern early warning radar system, including the recently introduced
'Fansong-E' low-level radar, linked with SA-2 'Guideline' surface-to-air missiles and a large number of AA guns. By
December 1971 the IAF comprised a total of 36 squadrons (of which 10 were deployed in the Bengal sector) with
some 650 combat aircraft.

Moreover, the 1965 war resulted in the USA imposing a 10 year arms embargo on both sides. This had no effect, on
India, which had always looked to Britain, France and even Russia for arms, but was disastrous for Pakistan, which
was forced to acquire 90 obsolete second hand Sabre via Iran, a mere 28 Mirage Ills from France and 74
maintenance intensive Shenyang F-6s. It was unable to replace losses among its (already weak) force of B-57s, or to
acquire a modern interceptor in realistic numbers.

Indo-Pakistani Air War of 1965 94

References

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[2] Leonard, Thomas (2006). Encyclopedia of the Developing World. Taylor & Francis, pp. 805-806. ISBN 978-0-415-97663-3.

[3] Harkavy, Robert; Neuman, Stephanie (2001). Warfare and the Third World. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 181. ISBN 978-0-312-24012-7.

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'before we had completed more than of about 270 degree of the turn, at around 12 degree per second, all
four hunters had been shot down.'

[12] "Re-birth of Pakistan's Record-holder Air Fighter as a New Man: Mohmammad M. Alam" (http://www.yespakistan.com/memorialday/

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[32] Fricker, John (1979). Battle for Pakistan: the air war of 1965 (http://books.google.com/books?id=FAhuAAAAMAAJ&q=cariappa). I.

Allan, p. 130. .
[33] Osama, Athar. "1965 War: A Different Legacy" (http://pakistaniat.com/2007/09/06/1965-war-a-different-legacy/comment-page-6/). .

Retrieved 2009-06-10.
[34] Khan, J A (2004). Air Power and Challenges to IAF. APH Publishing, p. 185. ISBN 978-81-7648-593-7.
[35] The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384-387 ISBN

1-904687-26-1)

Indian Air Force

Indian Air Force

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Indian Air Force Active 8 October 1932 - present Country India Size 127,000 personnel approx. 1,380 aircraft
Part of Ministry of Defence (India)Ministry of Defencelndian Armed Forces Headquarters New Delhi, India Motto
•Pf :?T3J' <flH$lH .Sanskrit languageSanskrit: Nabhah-Sprsam Diptam "Touch the Sky with Glory" "The IAF Motto".
Official Website. Webmaster IAF - Air Headquarters. . Retrieved 7 April 2009. Colors Navy blue, sky blue & white
Anniversaries Air Force Day: 8 October "A Mother in India: 8th October". 22 October 2007. . Retrieved 20 July
2010. Engagements Website indianairforce.nic.in Commanders Chief of the Air Staff (India)Chief of the Air
StaffAir Chief Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne Insignia Air Force Ensign RoundelRoundelFin flashesFin
flashThe IAF Fin Flash Aircraft flown Attack aircraftAttackSEPECAT JaguarJaguar, MiG-27, IAI
HarpyHarpyFighter aircraftFighterMiG-2 1 , Mirage 2000, MiG-29, Su-30MKI, HAL TejasHelicopterHAL
DhruvDhruv, HAL ChetakChetak, HAL CheetahCheetah, Mil Mi-8Mi-8, Mi-17, Mi-26, Mil
Mi-24Mi-25/35Surveillance aircraftReconnaissancelAI SearcherSearcher II, IAI HeronHeronTrainer
(aircraft)TrainerHPT-32 Deepak, HAL KiranHJT-16 Kiran, BAE HawkHawk Mk 132, Pilatus PC-7Pilatus C-7 Mk
IlCargo aircraftTransportIl-76, An-32, HS 748, Do 228, Boeing 737, Embraer ERJ 145 familyERJ 135, 11-7811-78
MKI, C-130JThe Indian Air Force (IAF; Devanagari: HTT^fPT TR1 ?T TT, Bhartiya Vayu Sena) is the air forceair
arm of the Indian armed forces. Its primary responsibility is to secure Indian airspace and to conduct aerial warfare
during a conflict. It was officially established on 8 October 1932 as an auxiliary air force of the British Raj and the
prefix Royal was added in 1945 in recognition of its services during World War II. After India achieved
independence from the United Kingdom in 1947, the Royal Indian Air Force served the Dominion of India, with the
prefix being dropped when India became a republic in 1950. Since independence, the IAF has been involved in
Indo-Pakistani Warsfour wars with neighbouring Pakistan and one with the People's Republic of China. Other major
operations undertaken by the IAF include Invasion of GoaOperation Vijay - the invasion of Goa, Operation
MeghdootOperation Meghdoot, Operation CactusOperation Cactus and Operation Poomalai. Apart from conflicts,
the IAF has been an active participant in History of United Nations peacekeepingUnited Nations peacekeeping
missions. The President of India serves as the Commander-in-Chief, IndiaCommander-in-Chief of the IAF. The
Chief of Air Staff (India)Chief of Air Staff, an Air Chief Marshal (ACM), is a four-star rankfour-star commander
and commands the Air Force. There is never more than one serving ACM at any given time in the IAF. One officer
Arjan Singh, DFC has been conferred the rank of Marshal of the Air Force, a five-star rank and the officer serves as
the ceremonial chief. In its publication the Military Balance 2010, International Institute for Strategic Studies (IISS)
estimates that the Indian Air Force has a strength of 127,000 active personnel and operated around List of aircraft of
the Indian Air Force#Current aircraftl,380 aircraft. However, various reliable sources provided notably divergent
estimates of its strength over the years. MissionEvolution of the IAF Roundel over the years:l)1933-1942
2)1942-19453)1947-1950 4)1950 - present "INDIAN AIR FORCE MUSEUM - Heraldry (Badges and Insignia)".
Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 16 January 2012. The IAF's mission is defined by the Armed Forces Act of 1947,
Constitution of India and the Air Force Act of 1950, Air Force Act, 1950. Ministry of Law & Justice. . Retrieved 16
January 2012. in the aerial battlespace, as: " Defence of India and every part thereof including preparation for
defence and all such acts as may be conducive in times of war to its prosecution and after its termination to effective
demobilisation. " Thus, the IAF has the primary objective of safeguarding Indian territory and national interests from

Indian Air Force 97

all threats in conjunction with the other branches of the armed forces by defending Indian airspace. The IAF provides
close air support to the Indian Army troops in the battlefield and also provides strategic and tactical airlift
capabilities. The IAF also operates the Integrated Space Cell together with the other two branches of the Indian
Armed Forces, the civilian Department of Space and the Indian Space Research Organization (ISRO) to utilise more
effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes and to look into threats to these assets. "India in
aerospace defence plan". BBC. 28 January 2011. . Retrieved 24 April 2009. "India Begins Work On Space Weapons
Command". Indo-Asian News Service (IANS). 12 April 2006. Archived from the original on 24 April 2006. .
Retrieved 16 January 2012. The Indian Air Force along with the other branches of the Indian Armed Forces provide
assistance in disaster relief such as during natural calamities by undertaking evacuation or search-and-rescue (SAR)
operations and air dropping relief supplies in affected areas. "Aid to Civil Power". . Retrieved 7 July 2010. The IAF
provided extensive assistance to relief operations during natural calamities such as the Gujarat cyclone in 1998 and
the Tsunami in 2004. The IAF also provides assistance to other countries during relief activities such as Operation
Rainbow in Sri Lanka.HistoryFormation and World War IIA Westland Wapiti, one of the first aircraft of the Indian
Air Force. The Indian Air Force was established in British India as an auxiliary air force "HC Deb 3 April 2011 vol
276 ccl473-501". Hansard. Parliament of the United Kingdom. . Retrieved 8 April 2009. of the Royal Air Force with
the enactment of the Indian Air Force Act 1932 on 8 October that year "History of the IAF". Official Website.
Webmaster IAF - Air Headquarters. . Retrieved 7 April 2009. Bedi, Sanjeev (Summer 2008). "Strategic Role of Air
Power". Air Power Journal (Center for Air Power Studies) 3 (2): 27-45. and adopted the Royal Air Force uniforms,
badges, brevets and insignia. On 1 April 1933, the IAF commissioned its first squadron, No. 1 Squadron, Indian Air
ForceNo.l Squadron, with four Westland Wapiti biplanes and five Indian pilots. The Indian pilots were led by Flight
Lieutenant (later Air Vice Marshal) Sir Cecil BouchierCecil Bouchier.Goyal, S.N. (October 1993). "1939-45 Second
World War: Air Force Reminiscences". Sainik Samachar. Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 8 April 2009. Until 1941,
No. 1 Squadron remained the only squadron of the IAF, though two more Flight (military unit)flights were added.
There were only two branches in the Air Force when it was formed, namely the General Duties (GD) branch and the
Logistics branch. During World War II, the red centre was removed from the IAF roundel to eliminate confusion
with the Japanese Hinomaru ("Rising Sun") emblem. The Air Force grew to seven squadrons in 1943 and to nine
squadrons in 1945, equipping with Vultee Vengeance dive bombers and Hurricanes, along with a transport unit with
the surviving Armstrong Whitworth AtalantaA.W. 15 Atalantas until 1944. The IAF helped in blocking the advance
of the Imperial JapanJapanese army in MyanmarBurma, where its first air strike was on the Japanese military base in
Rakhine StateArakan. It also carried out strike missions against the Japanese airbases at Mae Hong Son, Chiang Mai
and Chiang Rai in northern Thailand. In recognition of the crucial role played by the IAF, George VI of the United
KingdomKing George VI conferred it the prefix "Royal" in 1945.D'Souza, Bart (October 2010). "Indian Air Force :
Down the Memory Lane". Sainik Samachar. . Retrieved 7 April 2010. During the war, many youths joined the Indian
National Army. Forty five of them (known as the Tokyo Boys) were sent to train as fighter pilots at the Imperial
Japanese Army Air Force Academy in 1944 by Subhas Chandra Bose. "Bharat Rakshak Book Review". Burma to
Japan with Azad Hind: A War Memoir (1941-1945) by Ramesh S Benegal. September 2011. . Retrieved 4 July
2010. After the war, they were interned by the Allies of World War IIAllies and were court-martialled. After Indian
independence, some of them rejoined the IAF for service. First years of independence (1947-1950)Refugees awaiting
Military operations in Poonch (1948)evacuation by IAF Douglas C-47 SkytrainDakota on Poonch airstrip, December
1947. After gaining independence from the British Empire in 1947, British RajBritish India was partition of
Indiapartitioned into the new states of the Union of India and the Dominion of Pakistan. Along the lines of the
geographical partition, the assets of the air force were divided between the new countries. India's air force retained
the name of the Royal Indian Air Force, but three of the ten operational squadrons and facilities, located within the
borders of Pakistan, were transferred to the Pakistan Air ForceRoyal Pakistan Air Force. Engineer, Aspy M.
(February 1993). "Air Marshal Aspy Engineer's Recollections". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 8 April 2010. The RIAF
Roundel was changed to an interim 'Chakra' roundel derived from the Ashoka Chakra. Around the same time, conflict
broke out between them over the control of the Jammu and Kashmir (princely state)princely state of Jammu &

Indian Air Force

Kashmir. With Pakistani forces moving into the state, its Maharaja decided to accede to India in order to receive
military help. Lyon 2008, p. 79 The day after Instrument of Accession (Jammu and Kashmir)instrument of accession
was signed, the RIAF was called upon to transport troops into the war-zone. And this was when a good management
of logistics came into help. This led to the eruption of full scale war between India and Pakistan, though there was no
formal declaration of war.Massey 2005, p. 97 During the war, the RIAF did not engage the Pakistan Air Force in
air-to-air combat; however, it did provide effective transport and close air support to the Indian troops. Barua 2005,
p. 192When India became a republic in 1950, the prefix 'Royal' was dropped from the Indian Air Force. At the same
time, the current IAF roundel was adapted. Congo crisis and liberation of Goa (1960-1961) The IAF saw significant
conflict in 1960, when Belgian colonial empireBelgium's 75-year rule over Republic of the Congo
(Leopoldville)Congo ended abruptly, engulfing the nation in Congo Crisiswidespread violence and rebellion. "The
Congolese Rescue Operation". US Army History. . Retrieved 25 April 2009. IAF sent No. 5 Squadron, Indian Air
ForceNo. 5 Squadron, equipped with English Electric Canberra, to support United Nations Operation in the Congo.
The squadron started undertaking operational missions in November.Singh, Charanjit (Monsoon 2005). "The Congo
Diary". Air Power Journal (Center for Air Power Studies) 2 (3): 27—45. The unit remained there until 1966, when the
UN mission ended. Operating from KinshasaLeopoldville and Kamina, the Canberras soon destroyed the rebel Air
Force and provided the UN ground forces with its only long-range air support force. "Air Force History". Global
Security. . Retrieved 8 July 2010. In late 1961, the Indian government decided to deploy the armed forces in an effort
to evict the Portuguese out of Goa and other Enclaves after years of negotiation.Jagan Pillarisetti. "THE
LIBERATION OF GOA: 1961". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. The Indian Air Force was requested
to provide support elements to the ground force in what was called Operation Vijay (1961)Operation Vijay. Probing
flights by some fighters and bombers were carried out from 8-18 December to draw out the Portuguese Air Force,
but to no avail. On 18 December, two waves of English Electric CanberraCanberra bombers bombed the runway of
Dabolim airfield taking care not to bomb the Terminals and the ATC tower. Two Portuguese transport aircraft (a
Super Constellation and a DC-6) found on the airfield were left alone so that they can be captured intact. However
the Portuguese pilots managed to take off the aircraft from the still damaged airfield and made their getaway to
Portugal. Hawker HunterHunters attacked the wireless station at Bambolim. De Havilland VampireVampires were
used to provide air support to the ground forces. In Daman, Daman and DiuDaman, Dassault Mystere IVMysteres
were used to strike Portuguese gun positions. Dassault OuraganOuragans (called Toofanis in the IAF) bombed the
runways at Diu, IndiaDiu and destroyed the control tower, wireless station and the meteorological station.Border
disputes and changes in the IAF (1962-1971)In 1962, border disagreements between China and India escalated to a
war when China mobilised its troops across the Indian border.Pradhan 2010, p. 185 During the Sino-Indian War,
India's military planners failed to deploy and effectively use the IAF against the invading Chinese forces. This
resulted in India losing a significant amount of advantage to the Chinese; especially in Jammu and Kashmir.Three
years after the Sino-Indian conflict, in 1965, Pakistan launched Operation Gibraltar, a surprise invasion into India
which came to be known as the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965Second Kashmir War.Qadir, Shaukat (9 September
2005). "Operation Gibraltar: Battle that never was". The 1965 War, 40 Years On. Rediff News. . Retrieved 17
January 2012. "Pakistan ... undertook a guerrilla operation inside Indian held Kashmir with a large number of regular
soldiers ... expecting to be welcomed by the local population and raise them up in arms against the Indian
government." This was the first time the IAF actively engaged an enemy air force. Pradhan & Chavan 2007, p. xiv
However, instead of providing close air support to the Indian Army, Thomas 1996, p. 11 the IAF carried out
independent raids against Pakistan Air ForcePAF bases. Sisodia & Bhaskar 2005, p. 82 These bases were situated
deep inside Pakistani territory, making IAF fighters vulnerable to anti-aircraft fire. Gupta 1997, p. 43 During the
course of the conflict, the PAF enjoyed technological superiority over the IAF and had achieved substantial strategic
and tactical advantage due to their sudden attack. The IAF was restrained by the government from retaliating to PAF
attacks in the eastern sector while a substantive part of its combat force was deployed there and could not be
transferred to the western sector, against the possibility of Chinese intervention. Moreover, international (UN)
stipulations and norms did not permit military force to be introduced into the Indian state of J&K beyond what was

Indian Air Force 99

agreed during the 1949 ceasefire. Despite this, the IAF was able to prevent the PAF from gaining air superiority over
conflict zones. Dixit 2002, p. 149 The small and nimble IAF Folland Gnats proved effective against the F-86 Sabres
of the PAF earning it the nickname "Sabre Slayers". Air Marshal Ashok K Goel(retd.). "Sabre Slayers - The Gnat in
India". . By the time the conflict had ended, the IAF lost 59 aircraft (24 lost in air combat), while the PAF lost 43
aircraft (37 lost in air combat). More than 60% of IAF's air combat losses took place during the battles over
Kalaikunda and Pathankot; where most of the aircraft were destroyed while parked on the ground. Khan 2004,
p. 185HAL HF-24 Marut, the first indigenous fighter jet to enter service with the IAF. After the 1965 war, the IAF
underwent a series of changes to improve its capabilities. In 1966, the Para Commandos (India)Para Commandos
regiment was created.Praval 1975, p. 6 To increase its logistics supply and rescue operations ability, the IAF
inducted 72 HS 748s which were built by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) under license from Avro.Jones
1985, p. 78 India started to put more stress on indigenous manufacture of fighter aircraft. As a result, HAL HF-24
Marut, designed by the famed German aerospace engineer Kurt Tank,Boyne & Fopp 2002, p. 619 were inducted into
the air force. HAL also started developing an improved version of the Folland Gnat, known as HAL Ajeet. "The
Folland Gnat / HAL Ajeet". 1 December 2009. . Retrieved 7 July 2010. At the same time, the IAF also started
inducting Mach speedMach 2 capable Soviet MiG-21 and Sukhoi Su-7 fighters. "A Whale of a Fighter: the Su-7 in
IAF Service". Bharat Rakshak . Retrieved 5 July 2010.Bangladesh Liberation War (1971) By late 1971, the
intensification of the independence movement in erstwhile East Pakistan lead to the Bangladesh Liberation War
between India and Pakistan .Sisson & Rose 1991, p. 229 On 22 November 1971, 10 days before the start of a
full-scale war, four PAF F-86 Sabre jets attacked Indian and Mukti Bahini positions at Battle of GaribpurGaribpur,
near the international border. Two of the four PAF Sabres Battle of Boyrawere shot down and one damaged by the
IAF's Folland Gnats.Jagan Pillarisetti. "Boyra Encounter - 22nd November 1971". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 19
January 2012. On 3 December, India formally Indo-Pakistani War of 1971declared war against Pakistan following
massive Operation Chengiz Khanpreemptive strikes by the PAF against Indian Air Force installations in Srinagar,
Ambala, Sirsa, Halwara and Jodhpur. However, the IAF did not suffer significantly because the leadership had
anticipated such a move and precautions were taken. Newsweek: 34. 20 December 1971. ISSN 0028-9604. "Trying to
catch the Indian Air Force napping, Yahya Khan, launched a Pakistani version of Israel's 1967 air blitz in hopes that
one quick blow would cripple India's far superior air power. But India was alert and Yahya's strategy of scattering
his thin air force over a dozen air fields failed!" The Indian Air Force was quick to respond to Pakistani air strikes,
following which the PAF carried out mostly defensive sorties. Kainikara 2011, p. 195Within the first two weeks, the
IAF had carried out almost 2,000 sorties over East Pakistan and also provided East Pakistan Operations 1971close
air support to the advancing Indian Army. "The War Of December 1971". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 3 May 2009.
IAF also assisted the Indian Navy in its operations against the Pakistani Navy and Paramilitary forces of
PakistanMaritime Security Agency in the Bay of Bengal and Arabian Sea. On the western front, the IAF destroyed
more than 29 Pakistani tanks, 40 Armoured personnel carrierAPCs and a railway train during the Battle of
Longewala.Shorey, Anil (February 2005). "Battle of Longewala: Best of Braves". Sainik Samachar 52 (4). .
Retrieved 12 April 2009. The IAF undertook strategic bombing of West Pakistan by carrying out raids on oil
installations in Karachi, the Mangla Dam and a gas plant in Sindh.Mohan, Jagan. "When lightning strikes". Bharat
Rakshak. . Retrieved 12 April 2009. Similar strategy was also deployed in East Pakistan and as the IAF achieved
complete air superiority on the eastern front, the ordnance factories, runways, and other vital areas of East Pakistan
were severely damaged. "Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born". Time (magazine)TIME (Time Inc.). 20
December 1971. . Retrieved 12 April 2011. By the time Pakistani forces surrendered, the IAF claimed that 94 PAF
aircraft, including 54 F-86 Sabres had been shot down.Wilson 2002, p. 58 The IAF had flown over 6,000 sorties on
both East and West fronts; including sorties by transport aircraft and helicopters. Towards the end of the war, IAF's
transport planes dropped leaflets over Dhaka urging the Pakistani forces to surrender, demoralising Pakistani troops
in East Pakistan. Choudhury, Ishfaq Ilahi. "Air aspect of the Liberation War 1971". Daily Star. . Retrieved 8 April
2009.1ncidents before Kargil (1984-1988) In 1984, India launched Operation Meghdoot to capture the Siachen
Glacier in the contested Kashmir region.Ives 2004, p. 186 In Op Meghdoot, IAF's Mil Mi-8Mi-8, Aerospatiale

Indian Air Force 100

Alouette IHChetak and Aerospatiale LamaCheetah helicopters airlifted hundreds of Indian troops to Siachen.Talbott
2006, p. 164 Launched on 13 April 1984, this military operation was unique because of Siachen's inhospitable terrain
and climate. The military action was successful, given the fact that under a previous agreement, neither Pakistan nor
India had stationed any personnel in the area. The Indian forces, facing no opposition, took control over most of the
heights on the glacier. Karthikey an et al. 2011, p. 109IAF An-32s were used to airdrop humanitarian supplies in
Operation Poomalai. Following the failure to negotiate an end to the Sri Lankan Civil War, and to provide
humanitarian aid through an unarmed convoy of ships, Pillarisetti, Jagan. "Operation Poomalai - The Jaffna Food
drop". The Indian Air Force in Sri Lanka - 1987-90. Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. the Indian
Government decided to carry out an airdrop of the humanitarian supplies on the evening of 4 June 1987 designated
Operation Poomalai (Tamil languageTamil: Garland) or Eagle Mission 4. Five An-32s escorted by five Mirage
2000s carried out the supply drop which faced no opposition from the Sri Lankan Armed Forces .Weisman, Steven R.
(5 June 1987). "India Airlifts Aid to Tamil Rebels". The New York Times. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. Sri Lanka
accused India of "blatant violation of sovereignty". India insisted that it was acting only on humanitarian grounds. In
1987, the IAF supported the Indian Peace Keeping Force (IPKF) in northern and eastern Sri Lanka in Operation
Pawan. About 70,000 sorties were flown by the IAF's transport and helicopter force in support of nearly 100,000
troops and paramilitary forces without a single aircraft lost or mission aborted. "OP Pwan". Know Us. Indian Air
Force. . Retrieved 24 July 2010. IAF An-32s maintained a continuous air link between air bases in South India and
Northern Sri Lanka transporting men, equipment, rations and evacuating casualties. Mi-8s supported the ground
forces and also provided air transportation to the Sri Lankan civil administration during the elections. Mi-25s of No.
125 Helicopter Unit were utilised to provide suppressive fire against militant strong points and to interdict coastal
and clandestine riverine traffic. On the night of 3 November 1988, the Indian Air Force mounted special operations to
airlift a parachute battalion group from Agra, non-stop over 2000 kilometres to the remote Indian Ocean archipelago
of the Maldives in response to Maldivian president Gayoom's request for military help against a mercenary invasion
in Operation Cactus. The IL-76s of No. 44 Squadron landed at Hulhule at 0030 hours and the Indian paratroopers
secured the airfield and restored Government rule at Male within hours. "Official website of Indian Air Force". .
Retrieved 28 July 2010.Kargil War (1999)During the Kargil conflict Dassault Mirage 2000IAF Mirage 2000Hs,
along with MiG-27s carried out strikes against enemy positions. On 11 May 1999, the Indian Air Force was called in
to provide close air support to the Indian Army at the height of the ongoing Kargil conflict with the use of
helicopters. The IAF strike was code named Operation Safed Sagar. The first strikes were launched on 26 May,
when the Indian Air Force struck infiltrator positions with fighter aircraft and helicopter gunships. "India launches
Kashmir air attack". BBC News. 26 May 1999. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. The initial strikes saw MiG-27s
carrying out offensive sorties, with MiG-21s and later MiG-29s providing fighter cover.Camp, Philip. "The Mirage
2000 at Kargil". Kargil 1999. Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. The IAF also deployed its radars and the
MiG-29 fighters in vast numbers to keep check on Pakistani military movements across the border.Bammi 2002
Srinagar Airport was at this time closed to civilian air-traffic and dedicated to the Indian Air Force. On 27 May, the
Indian Air Force suffered its first fatality when it lost a Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21MiG-21 and a MiG-27 in quick
succession. According to an Indian reports, a MiG-27 crashed from engine trouble and the escorting MiG-21 was
shot down by Pakistani fire while trying to aid the downed pilot. The MiG-21 pilot was killed and the MiG-27 pilot
was taken as a war prisoner. Pakistan claims both jets were downed by Pakistani air defence after they crossed into
its territory. India claims they were lost over Indian territory. "India loses two jets". BBC News. 27 May 1999. .
Retrieved 17 January 2012. "Flyer pushes frontier again - Nachiketa returns to area where his plane was shot down".
Telegraph India. 22 May 2006. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. The following day, while on an offensive sortie, a
Mi-17 was shot down by three FIM-92 StingerStinger missiles and lost its entire crew of four. Following these losses
the IAF immediately withdrew helicopters from offensive roles as a measure against the threat of Man-portable
air-defense systems (MANPAD). On 30 May, the Mirage 2000s were introduced in offensive capability, as they
were deemed better in performance under the of high-altitude conditions of the conflict zone. Mirage 2000s were not
only better equipped to counter the MANPAD threat compared to the MiGs, but also gave IAF the ability to carry

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out aerial raids at night. The MiG-29s were used extensively to provide fighter escort to the Mirage 2000. Ganguly &
Kapur 2008, p. 105 The Mirages successfully targeted enemy camps and logistic bases in Kargil and severely
disrupted their supply lines. Jones 2003, p. 97 Mirage 2000s were used for strikes on Muntho Dhalo and the heavily
defended Tiger Hill, KargilTiger Hill and paved the way for their early recapture. At the height of the conflict, the
IAF was conducting over forty sorties daily over the Kargil region. By 26 July, the Indian forces had successfully
repulsed the Pakistani forces from Kargil. Kapur 2007, p. 122Post Kargil incidents (1999-present) On 10 August
1999, IAF MiG-21s intercepted a Pakistan Navy Breguet Atlantic which was flying over the disputed region of Sir
Creek. Atlantique IncidentThe aircraft was shot down killing all 16 Pakistani Navy personnel on board. "IAF Scores
a Kill !!! Factual Account of Interception". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 12 April 2009. India claimed that the
Atlantic was on a mission to gather information on IAF air defence, "IAF shoots down Pak intruder plane". The
Indian Express. 1 1 August 1999. . Retrieved 25 April 2009. a charge emphatically rejected by Pakistan which argued
that the unarmed aircraft was on a training mission.Ian MacKinnon (11 August 1999). "16 dead as India shoots down
Pakistani naval plane". The Independent (London). . Retrieved 7 June 2009. Since the late 1990s, the Indian Air
Force has been modernising its fleet to counter challenges in the new century. The fleet size of the IAF has decreased
to 33 squadrons during this period because of the retirement of older aircraft. Still, India maintains the fourth largest
air force in the world. The squadron strength is being raised to 42 squadrons. IAF to have 42 combat aircraft
squadronsStructure Ex-Air Chief Marshal Pradeep Vasant NaikThe President of India is the
Commander-in-chief#IndiaSupreme Commander of all Indian armed forces and by virtue of that fact is the notional
Commander-in-chief of the Air Force. Chief of the Air Staff (India)Chief of the Air Staff with the rank of Air Chief
Marshal is the Commander of the Indian Air Force. He is assisted by six officers: a Vice Chief of the Air Staff
(India) Vice Chief of the Air Staff, a Deputy Chief of the Air Staff, the Air Officer in Charge of Administration, the
Air Officer in Charge of Personnel, the Air Officer in Charge of Maintenance, and the Inspector General of Flight
Safety. "Branches at Air HQ & PSOs". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 4 May 2009. In January 2002, the Government
of Indiagovernment conferred the rank of Marshal of the Air Force on Arjan Singh making him the first and only
five-star rankFive-star officer with the Indian Air Force and ceremonial chief of the air force. "Marshal of the Indian
Air Force". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 4 May 2009. Commands and structure The Indian Air Force is divided into
five operational and two functional Command (military formation)commands. Each Command is headed by an Air
Officer Commanding-in-Chief with the rank of Air Marshal. The purpose of an operational command is to conduct
military operations using aircraft within its area of responsibility, whereas the responsibility of functional commands
is to maintain combat readiness. Aside from the Training Command at Bangalore, the centre for primary flight
training is located at the Air Force Academy in Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, followed by operational training at
various other schools. Advanced officer training for command positions is also conducted at the Defence Services
Staff College; specialised advanced flight training schools are located at Bidar, Karnataka, and Hakimpet, Andhra
Pradesh (also the location for helicopter training). Technical schools are found at a number of other locations.
"Indian Air Force". GlobalSecurity.org. . Retrieved 29 June 20 10. Operational CommandsCentral Air Command,
Indian Air ForceCentral Air Command (CAC), headquartered at Allahabad, Uttar PradeshEastern Air Command,
Indian Air ForceEastern Air Command (EAC), headquartered at Shillong, MeghalayaSouthern Air Command, Indian
Air ForceSouthern Air Command (SAC), headquartered at Thiruvananthapuram, KeralaSouth Western Air
Command, Indian Air ForceSouth Western Air Command (SWAC), headquartered at Gandhinagar, GujaratWestern
Air Command, Indian Air ForceWestern Air Command (WAC), headquartered at Subroto Park, New
DelhiFunctional CommandsTraining Command, Indian Air ForceTraining Command (TC), headquartered at
Bangalore, KarnatakaMaintenance Command, Indian Air ForceMaintenance Command (MC), headquartered at
Nagpur, MaharashtraBasesIndian Air Force is located in IndiaAllahabadCentral Air CmdAllahabadCentral Air
CmdShillongEasternAir CmdShillongEasternAir CmdThiruvananthapuramSouthern Air

CmdThiruvananthapuramSouthern Air CmdGandhinagarSouthwestern Air CmdGandhinagarSouthwestern Air
CmdNew DelhiWestern Air CmdNew DelhiWestern Air CmdBangaloreTraining CmdBangaloreTraining
CmdNagpurMaintenance CmdNagpurMaintenance CmdCommands of the Indian Air Force The IAF operates over

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sixty air bases, with more being built or planned. "Indian Air Force to Establish Missle, Air Base in Rajasthan". India
Defence. 6 January 2009. . Retrieved 4 May 2009. Western Air Command is the largest Air Command. It operates
sixteen air bases from Punjab, IndiaPunjab to Uttar Pradesh. Eastern Air Command operates fifteen Air bases in
Eastern and North-eastern India. Central Air Command operates seven Air Bases in Madhya Pradesh and
surrounding states of central India. Southern Air Command, a strategically important Air command, in line with
India's latest doctrine of protecting the vital shipping routes. It operates nine Air bases in Southern India and two in
the Andaman and Nicobar Islands. South Western Air Command is the front line of defence against Pakistan, this
important Command operates twelve air bases in Gujarat, Maharashtra and Rajasthan. India also operates the
Farkhor Air Base in Tajikistan. "Asia Times Online :: South Asia news - India's foray into Central Asia". . Retrieved
9 July 2010. Depending on size, a base is typically commanded by a Group Captain or Air Commodore.Wings A
Wing (air force unit) Wing is a formation intermediate between a Command and a Squadron. It generally consists of
two or three IAF Squadrons and Helicopter Units, along with Forward Base Support Units (FBSU). FBSUs do not
have or host any Squadrons or Helicopter units but act as transit airbases for routine operations. In times of war, they
can become fully fledged air bases playing host to various Squadrons. In all, about 47 Wings and 19 FBSUs make up
the IAF. "Air Force Wings, FBSUs and CMUs". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 July 2009. "Air Force FBSUs and
CMUs". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 July 2009. Wings are typically commanded by a Group Captain.
SquadronsSquadron (aviation)Squadrons are the field units and formations attached to static locations. Thus, a
Flying Squadron is a sub-unit of an air force station which carries out the primary task of the IAF. All fighter
squadrons are headed by a Commanding Officer with the rank of Wing Commander (rank)Wing Commander.
"Indian Air Force". 10 August 2009. . Retrieved 7 July 2010. Some Transport squadrons and Helicopter Units are
headed by a Commanding Officer with the rank of Group Captain. FlightsFlight (military unit)Flights are
sub-divisions of Squadron (aviation)Squadrons, commanded by a Squadron Leader. Within this formation structure,
IAF has several service branches for day-to-day operations. They are: "Indian Air Force: Career Opportunities".
Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. Flying Branch Flying Technical Branch Engineering Ground Branch
Logistics Administration Accounts Education Medical & Dental Meteorological Garud Commando Forceln
September 2004, the IAF established its own Special Forces of Indiaspecial operation unit called the Garud
Commando Force, consisting of approximately 1500 personnel. The unit derives its name from Garuda, a divine
bird-like creature of Hindu Mythology, but more commonly the word for eagle in Sanskrit. Garud is tasked with the
protection of critical installations; search and rescue during peace and hostilities and disaster relief during calamities.
"Constitution of Commando Force" (Press release). Press Information Bureau, Government of India. 18 December
2003. . Retrieved 25 July 2008. Integrated Space CellAn Integrated Space Cell, which will be jointly operated by all
the three services of the Indian armed forces, the civilian Department of Space and the Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO) has been set up to utilise more effectively the country's space-based assets for military purposes
and to look into threats to these assets. This command will leverage space technology including satellites. Unlike an
aerospace command, where the air force controls most of its activities, the Integrated Space Cell envisages
cooperation and coordination between the three services as well as civilian agencies dealing with space. "India goes
to war in space". 18 June 2008. . Retrieved 2 July 2010. India currently has
10http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/agni-v-launch-india-takes-on-china-drdo-vijay-saraswat/l/l 86367.html India
attains the capability to target, destroy space satellites in orbit remote sensing satellites in orbit. Though most are not
meant to be dedicated military satellites, some have a spacial resolution of 1 metre or below which can be also used
for military applications. Noteworthy satellites include the Technology Experiment Satellite (TES) which has a
panchromatic camera (PAN) with a resolution of 1 metre, "India's spy satellite boost". BBC. 27 November 2001. .
Retrieved 31 July 2009. the RISAT-2 which is capable of imaging in all-weather conditions and has a resolution of
one metre,Herman, Steve (20 April 2008). "India Launches High-Tech Imaging Satellite". Voice of America. .
Retrieved 31 July 2009. the CARTOSAT-2, CARTOSAT-2A "CARTOSAT-2A". Earth Observation Satellites.
ISRO. . Retrieved 17 January 2012. (a dedicated military satellite) "NDTV.com: India to launch first military
satellite in August". 10 June 2008. . Retrieved 18 July 2010. and CARTOSAT-2B "Spy satellite to catch miners, land

Indian Air Force 103

encroachers". 12 July 2010. . Retrieved 14 July, which carries a panchromatic camera which has a resolution of 80
centimetres (black and white only). Display TeamsHAL HJT-16 Kirans of the Surya Kiran display team flying in
formation. Surya Kiran (Sanskrit for Sun Rays) is an aerobatics demonstration team of the Indian Air Force. The
Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT) was formed in 1996 and are successors to the Thunderbolts.
"SURYAKIRANS". armedforces.nic.in. . The team has a total of 13 pilots (selected from the fighter stream of the
IAF) and operate 9 HAL KiranHAL HJT-16 Kiran Mk.2 trainer aircraft painted in a "day-glo orange" and white
Color schemecolour scheme. The Surya Kiran team were conferred squadron status in 2006, and presently have the
designation of 52 Squadron, Air force ("The Sharks"). "Squadrons and Helicopter Units". Bharat Rakshak. .
Retrieved 17 January 2012. Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team is based at the Indian Air Force Station at Bidar. The
HJT-16 Kiran is to be replaced by the HAL HJT-36 Sitara. The IAF have already given an order for 12 Limited
Series Production aircraft for the Surya Kiran team. "IAF's Surya Kirans to fly Hawk's". 10 October 2010. .
Retrieved 10 October 2010. Meanwhile, IAF has begun the process of converting Surya Kirans to BAE Hawks. It
will take 2-3 years for the team to completely shift to Hawks. Sarang is the Helicopter Display Team of the Indian
Air Force. The name Sarang (Sanskrit for Peacock) is symbolic as it is the national bird of India. The team was
formed in October 2003 and their first public performance was at the Asian Aerospace Show, Singapore, 2004. "ILA
2008: Proud as Peacocks". . The team flies four HAL Dhruvs "IAFs Sarang helicopter display team adjudged the
best at Berlin air show". 12 June 2008. . Retrieved 20 July 2010. painted in red and white with a peacock figure at
each side of the fuselage. The Sarang display team is based at the Indian Air Force base at Air Force Station Sulur,
Coimbatore.PersonnelOfficers of the IAF in their uniform. Over the years reliable sources provided notably divergent
estimates of the personnel strength of the Indian Air Force after analysing open-source intelligence. The public
policy organisation GlobalSecurity.org had estimated that the IAF had an estimated strength of 110,000 active
personnel in 1994. In 2006, Anthony Cordesman estimated that strength to be 170,000 in the International Institute
for Strategic Studies (IISS) publication "The Asian Conventional Military Balance in 2006". Cordesman & Kleiber
2006, p. 24 In 2010, James Hackett revised that estimate to an approximate strength of 127,000 active personnel in
the IISS publication "Military Balance 2010". Hackett 2010, p. 360The rank structure of the Indian Air Force is based
on that of the Royal Air Force. The highest rank attainable in the IAF is Marshal of the Air Force#IndiaMarshal of
the Indian Air Force, conferred by the President of India after exceptional service during wartime. MIAF Arjan
Singh is the only officer to have achieved this rank. The head of the Indian Air Force is the Chief of the Air Staff
(India)Chief of the Air Staff, who holds the rank of Air Chief Marshal. The current Chief of the Air Staff is Air
Chief Marshal Norman Anil Kumar Browne with effect from 1 August 2011. Officers Anyone holding Indian
citizenship can apply to be an officer in the Air Force as long as they satisfy the eligibility criteria. There are four
entry points to become an officer. Male applicants, who are between the ages of I6V2 and 19 and have passed high
school graduation, can apply at the Intermediate level. "Career Opportunities as an Officer: Intermediate (10+2)".
Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. Men and women applicants, who have graduated from college (three
year course) and are between the ages of 18 and 28, can apply at the Graduate level entry. "Career Opportunities as
an Officer: Graduate". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. Graduates of engineering colleges can apply at
the Engineer level if they are between the ages of 18 and 28 years. The age limit for the flying and ground duty
branch is 23 years of age and for technical branch is 28 years of age. "Career Opportunities as an Officer: Engineer".
Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. After completing a master's degree, men and women between the ages
of 18 and 28 years can apply at the Post Graduate level. Post graduate applicants do not qualify for the flying branch.
For the technical branch the age limit is 28 years and for the ground duty branch it is 25. "Career Opportunities as an
Officer: Post Graduate". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. At the time of application, all applicants must
be single. "Career Opportunities as an Officer". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 21 April 2009. The IAF selects
candidates for officer training from these applicants. After completion of training, a candidate is commissioned as a
Flying Officer. "Career Graph (for Officers)". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 5 July 2010.ShoulderSleeveRankMarshal
of the Air ForceMarshal of the Air Force 1 Air Chief MarshalAir Chief MarshalAir MarshalAir Vice MarshalAir Vice
MarshalAir CommodoreAir CommodoreGroup CaptainGroup CaptainWing Commander (rank)Wing

Indian Air Force 104

CommanderSquadron LeaderSquadron LeaderFlight LieutenantFlight LieutenantFlying OfficerFlying OfficerPilot
OfficerPilot Officer2 ' Honorary/War time rank. 2 Rank no longer exist. 1+ Ranks of the Indian Air Force- Officer
RanksAirmenA Squadron Leader leading the IAF Airmen during a Honor guardguard of honour ceremony to Lula
da Silva at the Rashtrapati Bhavan.The duty of an airman in the Indian Air Force is to make sure that all the air and
ground operations run smoothly. From operating Air Defence systems to fitting missiles, they are involved in all
activities of an air base and give support to various technical and non-technical jobs. "Central Airmen Selection
Board". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. The recruitment of personnel below officer rank is conducted
through All India Selection Tests and Recruitment Rallies. All India Selection Tests are conducted among 14 Airmen
Selection Centres (ASCs) located all over India. These centres are under the direct functional control of Central
Airmen Selection Board (CASB), with administrative control and support by respective commands. The role of
CASB is to carry out selection and enrolment of airmen from the Airmen Selection Centres for their respective
commands. Candidates initially take a written test at the time of application. Those passing the written test undergo a
physical fitness test, an interview conducted in English, and medical examination. Candidates for training are
selected from individuals passing the battery of tests, on the basis of their performance. Upon completion of training,
an individual becomes an Airman. Some MWOs and WOs are granted honorary commission in the last year of their
service as an honorary Flying Officer or Flight Lieutenant before retiring from the service. Ranks of the Indian Air
Force - Enlisted RanksJunior Commissioned OfficerEnlistedShoulderArmSleeveRankWarrant OfficerMaster
Warrant OfficerWarrant OfficerWarrant OfficerJunior Warrant OfficerSergeantCorporalLeading
AircraftsmanLeading AircraftsmanAircraftsmanNon Combatants Enrolled and civilians Non Combatants Enrolled
(NCs(E)) were established in British India as personal assistants to the officer class, and are equivalent to the orderly
or sahayak of the Indian Army. "Air HQ Communication Squadron". Global Security. . Retrieved 8 July
2010. Almost all the commands have some percentage of civilian strength which are central government employees.
These are regular ranks which are prevalent in ministries. They are usually not posted outside their stations and are
employed in administrative and non-technical work. "Non Combatant(Enrolled) - Pension Chart". Principal
Controller of Defence Accounts. . Retrieved 6 July 2010. "AFRO Career Planning". Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 6
July 2010. Training and educationThe Sudan Block of the National Defence Academy (India)National Defence
Academy (NDA). NDA serves as the joint services academy for the Army, the Navy and the Air Force. The Indian
Armed Forces has set up numerous military academies across India for training its personnel. Military schools,
Sainik Schools, and the Rashtriya Indian Military College were founded to broaden the recruitment base of the
Defence Forces. The three branches of the Indian Armed Forces jointly operate several institutions such as the
National Defence Academy (India)National Defence Academy (NDA), Defence Services Staff College (DSSC),
National Defence College, IndiaNational Defence College (NDC) and the College of Defence Management (CDM)
for training its officers. The Armed Forces Medical College, PuneArmed Forces Medical College (AFMC) at Pune,
MaharashtraPune is responsible for providing the entire pool of medical staff to the Armed Forces by giving them in
service training. Besides these Tri-service institutions, the Indian Air Force has a Training Command, Indian Air
ForceTraining Command and several training establishments. While technical and other support staff are trained at
various Ground Training Schools, the pilots are trained at the Air Force Academy located at Dindigul. The Pilot
Training Establishment at Allahabad, the Air Force Administrative College at Coimbatore, the School of Aviation
Medicine at Bangalore, the Air Force Technical College, Bangalore at Jalahalli and the Paratrooper's Training
School at Agra are some of the other training establishments of the IAF. Aircraft inventory The Indian Air Force has
aircraft and equipment of Russian (erstwhile Soviet Union), British, French, Israeli, U.S. and Indian origins with
Russian aircraft dominating its inventory. HAL produces some of the Russian and British aircraft in India under
licence. The exact number of aircraft in service with the Indian Air Force cannot be determined with precision from
open sources. Various reliable sources provide notably divergent estimates for a variety of high-visibility aircraft.
"Air Force Equipment". Global Security.org. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. Fighter and multi-role combat aircraftSukhoi
Su-30 MKI The primary role of the fighter aircraft in the Indian Air Force inventory is to achieve and maintain air
supremacy over the battle field. Air superiority fighters are fast and manoeuvrable aircraft designed primarily for

Indian Air Force 105

air-to-air combat with limited capability to strike ground targets. Multi-role aircraft on the other hand are capable of
conducting air-to air combat and ground attack with equal ease; sometimes within the same mission. This ability of
combining different operational tasks offers considerable cost-of-ownership benefits to the operators. "Eurofighter
Typhoon, Mission configuration, Swing Role". Eurofighter Jagdflugzeug GmbH. . Retrieved 25 January 2012. The
Su-30MKISukhoi Su-30MKI is the IAF's primary air superiority fighter with the capability to conduct strike
missions. The IAF have placed an order for a total of 272 Su-30MKIs "Indian Air Force Opts for More Su-30MKI,
Despite Problems". 18 December 2011. . Retrieved 27 December 2011. of which 146 are in service as of 2011. "Air
Chief flies SU-30 to restore confidence in pilots". 21 December 2011. . Retrieved 27 December 2011. The Mikoyan
MiG-29 known as Baaz (Hindi languageHindi for Hawk) is the IAF's dedicated air superiority fighter and forms the
second line of defence for the IAF after the Sukhoi Su-30MKI. The IAF operates 68 MiG-29s, all of which are
currently being upgraded to the MiG-29UPG standard. Anton Denisov (5 February 2011). "Russia tests upgraded
MiG-29 fighter for IAF". en.rian.ru. . Retrieved 9 February 2011. The Dassault Mirage 2000, known as Vajra
(Sanskrit languages anskrit for Thunderbolt) in Indian service, is the IAF's primary multirole fighter. The IAF
currently operates 5 1 Mirage 2000Hs which are currently being upgraded to the Mirage 2000-5 standard. "Two IAF
Mirage aircraft flown to France for upgradation". 6 December 2011. . Retrieved 27 December 2011..
http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-02-01/india/31012278_l_rafale-mmrca-project-french-air-force.The
Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21 serves as an Interceptor aircraft in the IAF. The IAF have phased out most of its
MiG-21s and plans to keep only 125 that have been upgraded to MiG-21 Bison standard. "India's Fighter
Modernization: Add MiG-29s to the List". Defense Industry Daily. 28 April 2011. . Retrieved 17 January 2011.
These aircraft will be phased out between 2014 and 2017. "MiG 21s to be phased out from 2014: Antony". The
Hindu. 29 Februsry 2012. . Retrieved 29 February 2012. The MiG-21s are planned to be replaced by the
indigenously built HAL Tejas. "LCA Tejas makes successful flight". Times of India. 23 April 2010. . "Light combat
aircraft flies with near-full gear". Daily News and Analysis. India. .Strike, attack and close support aircraftSEPECAT
Jaguar These are military aircraft designed to attack targets on the ground. They are often deployed as close air
support for, and in proximity to, their own ground forces, requiring precision strikes from these aircraft. The
SEPECAT Jaguar known as Shamsher and the Mikoyan MiG -27 known as Bahadur (Hindi for Valiant) serve as the
IAF's primary ground attack force. Naik, V.P. (26 September 2008). "IAF aiming for Diverse Capabilities, says Vice
Chief of Air Staff". Air Marshal P V Naik's Keynote Address on Fighter Technology and Advance Systems. India
Strategic. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. The IAF currently operates 139 Jaguars "HAL To Tie-Up With BAE Systems
For Jaguar Upgrade". 30 November 2009. . Retrieved 23 July 2010. and over 100 MiG-27s. "MiG-27 crashes into
field, 1 killed". The Times of India. 25 July 2010. . Retrieved 26 July 2010. Airborne early warning aircraftlAF
Beriev A-50EI Mainstay AEW&C These aircraft are designed to detect and distinguish hostile aircraft. The system
can be used to direct fighters and strike aircraft to their targets and warn them of hostile enemy aircraft in the area.
The IAF currently operates the EL/M-2075 Phalcon AEW&C. A total of 3 such systems are currently in service,
with possible orders for 2 more. "Russia sends 3rd AW ACS plane to India". 4 November 2010. . Retrieved 4
November 20 10. Tanker aircraftlAF I1-78MKI These aircraft are used for aerial refuelling which allows IAF aircraft
to remain airborne for longer periods, hence enhancing their effective range. Aerial refuelling also allows aircraft to
take-off with greater payload (by carrying less fuel during take-off). The IAF currently operates 6 Ilyushin
Il-78MKIs for aerial refuelling roles .Mukherjee, Amit (29 September 2004). "IAF to get 5th IL-78 refueller soon".
The Times of India. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. Kopp, Carlo. "The PLA-AF's Aerial Refuelling Programs". Air Power
Australia. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. Transport aircraftlAF 11-76 landing at Leh airfield. Transport aircraft are
typically used to deliver troops, weapons, supplies and other military equipment to the IAF field of operations. The
IAF currently operate different types of transport aircraft for different roles. The IAF operates Ilyushin Il-76s known
as Gajraj (Hindi for King Elephant) for military transport roles such as strategic or airliftheavy lift at all operational
levels. "Illyushin I1-76MD [Candid Gajraj"]. . Retrieved 10 July 2010. The IAF currently operates 17 Il-76s. "". 28
April 2010. . Retrieved 2 September 2010. The Il-76s are to be replaced by C-17 Globemaster IIIs.Bedi, Rahul (5
July 2010). "IAF completes C-17 test-flight". . Retrieved 21 July 2010. "Indian Air Force :: Illyushin 76MD, 78MKI,

Indian Air Force 106

A-50 - Serials". Bharat-rakshak.com. . Retrieved 24 September 2011. The C-130J of the IAF is used by special
forces for combined Army-Air Force operations. "Lockheed delivers fifth C130J to IAF". . Retrieved 9 December
2011. There are currently 6 C-130Js in service. "Deals for Acquisition of C-130 J Super Hercules (Press Release)". 7
December 2011. . Retrieved 16 December 2011. The Antonov An-32 known as Sutlej (name of an Sutlej Riverlndian
river) serves as medium transport aircraft in the IAF. The aircraft is also used in bombing roles and para-dropping
operations. "IAF An-32 planes in Ukraine for upgrades". 21 March 2010. . Retrieved 20 July 2010. The IAF
currently operates 105 An-32s, all of which are being upgraded.The Hawker Siddeley HS 748 once formed the
backbone of the IAF's transport fleet, but are now used mainly for transport training and communication duties.
"HAL HS 748M Avro". Bharat Rakshak . Retrieved 10 July 2010. The Dornier Do 228 serves as light transport
aircraft in the IAF. "Dornier Do-228". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 July 2010. The IAF also operates Boeing 737s
"Boeing 737". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 July 2010. and Embraer ECJ-135 Legacy aircraft "Embraer EMB135
Legacy". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 10 July 2010. as VIP Transports. The IAF operates aircraft for the President of
India as well as the Prime Minister of India under the call sign Air India One. "April 1 date for President with
business jets". Zee News. 16 March 2009. . Retrieved 8 April 2011. Training aircraftlAF BAE HawkBAE Hawk Mk
132 Training aircraft are used to develop piloting and nagivational skills in pilots and air crew. The HAL HPT-32
Deepak is IAF's basic flight training aircraft for cadets. "HAL HPT-32 Deepak". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 23
April 2009. The HPT-32 was grounded in July 2009 following a crash that killed two senior flight instructors, "IAF
gives nod for HPT-32 revival". The Hindu. 16 May 2010. . Retrieved 17 May 2010. but was revived in May 2010
and is to be fitted with a parachute recovery system (PRS) to enhance survivability during an emergency in the air
and to bring the trainer down safely. The HPT-32 is to be phased out soon. The IAF uses the HAL HJT-16 KiranHAL
HJT-16 Kiran mk.I for intermediate flight training of cadets, while the HJT-16 Kiran mk.II provides advanced flight
and weapons training. "HAL HJT-16 Kiran Mk.l/IA". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 23 April 2009. "HAL HJT-16
Kiran Mk.II". Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 23 April 2009. The HAL HJT-16 Kiran Mk.2 is also operated by the
Surya Kiran Aerobatic Team (SKAT) of the IAF. "SURYAKIRANS". . Retrieved 20 July 2010. The Kiran is to be
replaced by the HAL HJT-36 Sitara. "HJT-36 Sitara Intermediate Jet Trainer, India". . Retrieved 6 July 2010. The
BAE HawkBAE Hawk Mk 132 serves as an advanced jet trainer in the IAF and is progressively replacing the Kiran
Mk.II. The IAF has begun the process of converting the Surya Kiran display team to Hawks. A total of 106 BAE
Hawk trainers have been ordered by the IAF of which 39 have entered service as of July 2010. "India inks deal with
BAE for 57 Hawk aircraft". The Times Of India. 28 July 2010. . Retrieved 31 July 2010. The purchase of 75 Pilatus
PC-7 Mk-II aircraft has been cleared by the Cabinet Committee. The decision has been made in the wake of acute
shortage of basic trainer aircrafts. "Cabinet clears Rs 3000 crore deal IAF trainer jet deal". . Retrieved 10 May 2012.
On 24th May 2012, IAF signed a Rs 2800 crore deal with the Swiss company to purchase 75 Pilatus Planes. "IAF
signs Rs 2,800 crore deal for acquisition of Pilatus planes.". . Retrieved 24 May 2012.HelicoptersIAF Mi-8 at Aero
India 2011. HAL Dhruv of the Indian Air Force Sarang (military)Sarang Helicopter Display Team An important
objective of the IAF is to support ground troops by providing air cover and by transporting men and essential
commodities across the battlefield. For this purpose the Air Force maintains a fleet of helicopters. The HAL Dhruv
serves primarily as a light utility helicopter in the IAF. In addition to transport and utility roles, Dhruvs are also used
as attack helicopters. "HAL Dhruv". . Retrieved 20 July 2010. "IAF Dhruvs, can carry a 20mm gun plus eight
anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs) or four air-to-air missiles or four 68mm rocket pods on outriggers." 4 Dhruvs are
also operated by the Indian Air Force Sarang (military)Sarang Helicopter Display Team.IAF Mil Mi-24Mil Mi-35
Hind Akbar The HAL Chetak is a light utility helicopter and is used primarily for training, rescue and light transport
roles in the IAF. "HAL Chetak (Alouette III)". . Retrieved 20 July 2010. The HAL Chetak is scheduled to be
replaced by HAL's Advanced Light Helicopter.The HAL Cheetah is a light utility helicopter used for high altitude
operations. It is used for both transport and search-and-rescue missions in the IAF. "HAL Cheetah (Alouette II)". .
Retrieved 20 July 2010.The Mil Mi-8 and the Mil Mi-17 are operated by the IAF for medium utility roles. The Mi-8
is being progressively replaced by the Mi-17. "Mil Mi-8 (Hip) Rana". . Retrieved 7 July 2010. "Mil Mi-17 (Hip)
Pratap". . Retrieved 7 July 2010. The IAF has ordered 80 Mi-17V-5s to replace and augment its existing fleet of

Indian Air Force 107

Mi-8s and Mi-17s, with an order for 59 additional helicopters to follow soon.Gulshan Luthra and Air Marshal Ashok
Goel (Retd) (August 2010). "". India Strategic. . Retrieved 20 August 2010.The Mil Mi-26 serves as a heavy lift
helicopter in the IAF. It can also be used to transport troops or as a flying ambulance. The IAF currently operates 4
Mi-26s. "Mil Mi-26 (Halo)". . Retrieved 20 July 2010.The Mil Mi-24Mil Mi-35 serves primarily as an attack
helicopter in the IAF. The Mil Mi-35 can also act as a low-capacity troop transport. The IAF currently operates 2
squadrons (No. 104 Firebirds and No. 125 Gladiators) of Mi-25/35s. "Mil Mi-25 / Mi-35 (Hind) Akbar". . Retrieved
20 July 20 10. Unmanned Aerial Vehicles The primary role of Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) is to provide aerial
surveillance and reconnaissance. UAVs can also be used as unmanned combat aircraft or pilotless target aircraft. The
IAF currently uses the IAI SearcherlAI Searcher II "Searcher Mk II Delivered To India", israeli-weapons.com. .
Retrieved 22 April 2009. and IAI Heron "Heron MALE System — Medium Altitude Long Endurance UAV".
defence-update.com. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. for reconnaissance and surveillance purposes. The IAI Harpy serves
as an Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV) which is designed to attack radar systems. Pandit, Raj at (5 July
2010). "Air Force hunts for combat drones". The Times Of India. . Retrieved 14 July 2010. The IAF also operates
the DRDO Lakshya which serves as realistic towed aerial sub-targets for live fire training. "Press Information
Bureau". Government of India. . Retrieved 22 April 2009. Land-based air defenceSurface-to-air missile
systemsAkash missile. The IAF currently operates the S-125 Neva/PechoraS-125 Pechora MissileUnits.html "Air
Force Equipment - Missiles - SAM". Bharat Rakshak. MissileUnits.html. Retrieved 23 April 2009. and the 9K33
Osa as Surface-to-air missile systems. The IAF is also currently inducting the Akash missileAkash medium range
surface-to-air missile system. A total of 8 squadrons has been ordered so far. "Akash Missile". 13 April 2010. .
Retrieved 17 July 2010. Ballistic missiles The IAF currently operates the Prithvi-II short-range ballistic missile
(SRBM). The Prithvi-II is an IAF-specific variant of the Prithvi missilePrithvi ballistic missile. "Prithvi". 5
November 2002. . Retrieved 17 July 2010.Anti-ballistic missile systems The S-300 (missile)S-300 SAM
"S-300PMU". Federation of American Scientists. . Retrieved 23 April 2009. serves as an Anti-Tactical Ballistic
Missile (ATBM) system in the IAF. The S-300 is also able to detect, track, and destroy incoming cruise missiles and
low-flying aircraft. "S-300P (SA-10 Grumble)". . Retrieved 18 July 2010. Future The number of aircraft in the IAF
has been decreasing from the late 1990s due to retirement of older aircraft and several crashes. To deal with the
depletion of force levels, the IAF has started to modernise its fleet. This includes both upgrade of existing aircraft,
equipment and infrastructure as well as induction of new aircraft and equipment, both indigenous and imported. As
new aircraft enter service and numbers recover, the IAF plans to have a fleet of 42 squadrons. "IAF fighter squadrons
to rise to 42 by 2022: Antony". The Times of India. 18 February 2009. . Retrieved 24 April 2009.UpgradesThe air
launched version of Brahmos. The IAF is currently upgrading its 69 MiG-29s (to the UPG standard) and 105
An-32s. IAF's HAL HPT-32 Deepak trainers are to be fitted with a parachute recovery system (PRS) to enhance
survivability during an emergency in the air and to bring the trainer down safely. There are also a contract to upgrade
its 51 Mirage 2000Hs to the Mirage-2000-5 Mk 2

varianthttp://weapons. technology. youngester.com/2011/05/2-billion-for-iaf-mirage-2000-upgrade. html and 40
Su-30MKIs with new radars, on-board computers, Electronic warfareelectronic warfare systems "Russia wins large
contract to modernize Indian Su-30MKI fighters - media". RIA Novosti. . Retrieved 1 July 2010. and the capability
of carrying the air launched version of the BrahMos cruise missile. "40 Indian fighter jets to be fitted with BrahMos
missiles". Economic Times (India). 22 April 2010. . Retrieved 1 July 2010. "IAF might get missile-armed Sukhois
by 2012". The Hindu. . Retrieved 1 July 2010. Under procurementHAL TejasHAL Light Combat Helicopter The IAF
has placed orders for 48 indigenous HAL Tejas aircraft, "Air force to get 20 more Tejas fighter aircraft, says
Antony". 7 July 2010. . 72 HAL HJT-36 Sitara trainers and 65 HAL Light Combat Helicopters, "Light Combat
Helicopter (LCH)". Knol. 17 August 2010. . Retrieved 23 August 2010. and will order 126 Dassault Rafale multirole
fighters,K.V. Prasad (31 January 2012). "Rafale edges out Eurofighter". . Retrieved 31 January 2012. 22 AH-64
ApacheAH-64D Apache Longbow heavy attack helicopters, "US offers famous 'Stinger' missiles to India". 12
January 2012. . Retrieved 1 February 2012. 10 C-17 Globemaster III strategic air-lifters, "India to buy six more C-17
air-lifters from US". Hindustan Times. 4 August 2010. . Retrieved 4 August 2010. 139 Mi-17Mi-17V-5 helicopters,

Indian Air Force 108

"IAF orders additional 59 Mi-17 choppers from Russia", domain-b.com. 9 September 2010. . Retrieved 9 September
2010. 12 VVIP-configured AgustaWestland AW101 helicopters/Tom Kington (11 March 2010). "Indian AF To Buy
12 AgustaWestland AW101 Helos". . Retrieved 13 July 2010. and IAI Harop UCAVs.Egozi, Arie (9 April 2010).
"Indian air force orders Harop loitering munitions". . Retrieved 14 July 2010. The IAF has also ordered 18 Israeli
SPYDER Surface to Air Missiles (SAMs). "IAF orders Israeli Spyder Missile". September 2008. . Retrieved 12 July
2010.Pilatus PC-7 is selected for a tender to equip the IAF with 75 basic trainer aircraft.Jay Menon (16 June 2011).
"India Selects Pilatus Basic Trainer". Aviation Week. . Retrieved 19 June 2011. The IAF is planning to procure 15
heavy lift helicopters for which the CH-47 Chinook and Mi-26 are being considered. Saurabh Joshi (18 July 2010).
"IAF begins Apache trials". Stratpost. . Retrieved 23 July 2010. A Request for Proposal for 6 additional tanker
aircraft was issued, for which the EADS A330 MMRT and the 11-78 are the competing aircraft. "Boeing withdraws
from Indian Air Force tanker tender". Zurf Military Aircraft. . Retrieved 21 January 2011. The IAF has issued a
Request for Information (RFI) for 16 C-27J Spartan medium military transport aircraft. "IAF issues RFI for C 27J
Spartan". July 2010. . Retrieved 22 July 2010. The IAF also submitted a request for information to international
suppliers for a stealth unmanned combat air vehicle (UCAV) "India canvasses global suppliers for stealthy UCAV".
7 July 2010. . Retrieved 12 July 2010. and the Indian Ministry of Defence (MOD) will float a tender for 125 light
helicopters. Under developmentHAL HJT-36 Sitara Indian defence companies such as HAL and DRDO are
developing several aircraft for the IAF such as the HAL Tejas, Advanced Medium Combat Aircraft (AMCA), "India
reveals plan to develop indigenous medium fighter". . DRDO AEW&CS (revived from the Airborne Surveillance
PlatformAiravat Project), "Cabinet panel nod for "Airawat' project". The Hindu. 10 September 2004. . Retrieved 24
April 2009. NAL Saras, "Lighter version of Saras aircraft to fly out next year". The Hindu (Chennai, India). 26 June
2008. . HAL HJT-36 Sitara, "HAL's intermediate jet trainer HJT-36 makes maiden flight with Russian engine". The
Hindu (Chennai, India). 14 May 2009. . Retrieved 12 July 2010. HAL HTT-40, HAL Light Combat Helicopter
(LCH), "Light Combat Helicopter (LCH)Specifications". GlobalSecurity.org. . Retrieved 26 April 2009. HAL Light
Observation Helicopter (LOH), "HAL looks at foreign partners for chopper project". The Times Of India. 29
September 2008. . DRDO Rustom "India developing UAV similar to American Predator drone". The Economic
Times. 14 November 2011. . Retrieved 16 January 2012. and AURA UAV AURA (Autonomous Unmanned
Research Aircraft) UCAV.Aroor, Shiv (11 June 2010). "AURA: India's UCAV Program". . Retrieved 2 July 2010.
DRDO has developed the Akash missile system for the IAF "IAF initiates process for inducting Akash and Trishul
SAM's". Frontier India. 3 May 2007. . Retrieved 23 April 2009. "IAF to induct Akash missile". The Indian Express.
26 December 2007. . Retrieved 24 April 2009. and is developing the Maitri missileMaitri SAM with MBDA.
"Indo-French Maitri SR-SAM Awaits Workshare Clearance". 11 February 2010. . Retrieved 12 July 2010. DRDO is
also developing the Prithvi missilePrithvi II ballistic missile. "Prithvi". Federation of American Scientists. .
Retrieved 24 April 2009. HAL has undertaken the joint development of the Sukhoi/HAL FGFA (Fifth Generation
Fighter Aircraft)Pubby, Manu (12 October 2007). "India, Russia to ink pact for developing fighters". The Indian
Express. . Retrieved 1 August 2009. (a derivative project of the Sukhoi PAK FA) and the UAC/HAL 11-214
Multirole Transport Aircraft (MTA) "Russia, India may form military transport planes JV in 2-3 months". . with
Russia's United Aircraft Corporation (UAC). DRDO has entered in a joint venture with Israel Aerospace Industries
(IAI) to develop the Barak 8 (missile)Barak 8 SAM. "Barak-2 LR-SAM maiden flight later this year". 1 February
2010. . Retrieved 12 July 2010. DRDO is developing the air launched version of the Brahmos cruise missile in a
joint venture with Russia's NPO Mashinostroeyenia. DRDO is also developing the nuclear capable Nirbhay cruise
missile. "IAF Sukhoi Fleet to be Equipped with Homemade Nirbhay Missiles". 21 May 2010. . Retrieved 16 July
2010.FootnotesReferencesBibliographyBammi, Y.M. (2002). Kargil 1999, Impregnable Conquered. Gorkha
Publishers, xxviii, 558, 65, 8 p. ISBN 978-81-7525-352-0. LCCN 2003305922.Bajwa, Kuldip Singh (2005). The
Dynamics of Soldiering. Har-Anand Publications. 292. ISBN 978-81-241-0940-3.Barua, Pradeep (2005). The State
at War in South Asia. University of Nebraska Press, xvi; 437. ISBN 978-0-8032- 1344-9.Walter J. BoyneBoyne,
Walter J.; Fopp, Michael (2002). Air Warfare: An International Encyclopedia (Illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO, xvi; 437.
ISBN978-l-57607-345-2.Chadha, Vivek (2005). Low Intensity Conflicts in India (Illustrated ed.). SAGE. 513.

Indian Air Force 109

ISBN 978-0-7619-3325-0.Coggins, Ed (2000). Wings That Stay on (Illustrated ed.). Turner Publishing Company, iii;
244. ISBN 978-1 -563 ll-568-4.Cordesman, Anthony H.; Kleiber, Martin (2006). The Asian Conventional Military
Balance in 2006: Overview of major Asian Powers. Center for Strategic & International Studies. 48. Dixit, Jyotindra
Nath (2002). India-Pakistan in War & Peace. Routledge. 501. ISBN 978-0-415-30472-6.Europa Publications (2005).
Far East and Australasia 2003. Europa Publications. 1538. ISBN 978-l-85743-133-9.Ganguly, Sumit; Kapur, S. Paul
(2008). Nuclear Proliferation in South Asia (illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. Xii; 251.
ISBN 978-0-415-44049-3. Gupta, Amit (1997). Building an Arsenal: The Evolution of Regional Power Force
Structures (Illustrated ed.). Greenwood Publishing Group, xi; 217. ISBN 978-0-275-95787-2.Ives, Jack D. (2004).
Himalayan Perceptions: Environmental Change and the Well-being of Mountain Peoples (Illustrated ed.). Routledge.
xxi; 271. ISBN 978-0-415-3 1798-6.International Institute for Strategic Studies (2002). The Military Balance
2002/2003 (Map ed.). International Institute for Strategic Studies. ISBN 978-0-19-851672-9. International Institute
for Strategic Studieslnternational Institute for Strategic Studies; Hackett, James (ed.) (3 February 2010). The
Military Balance 2010. London: Routledge. ISBN l-85743-557-5.Jones, Aubrey (1985). Britain's Economy: The
Roots of Stagnation (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-30816-8. Jones, Owen Bennett
(2003). Pakistan: Eye of the Storm (2, illustrated, revised ed.). Yale University Press. 328.
ISBN 978-0-300-10147-8. Kainikara, Sanu (2007). Red Air: Politics in Russian Air Power. Universal Publishers.
ISBN 978-1-581 12-983-0.Kapur, S. Paul (2007). Dangerous Deterrent: Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and Conflict
in South Asia (Annotated ed.). Stanford University Press. 280. ISBN 978-0-8047-5549-8. Karthikeyan, K.R.; Gupta;
Sendilkumar, R.; Jaganathan, D. (2008). A Textbook of Agricultural Extension Management. Atlantic Publishers &
Distributors, v; 192. ISBN 978-8 1-269-088 l-3.Khan, J.A. (2004). Air Power and Challenges to IAF. APH
Publishing, xxxii; 361. ISBN 978-8 l-7648-593-7.Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict Between India and Pakistan: An
Encyclopedia (illustrated ed.). ABC-CLIO. ISBN 978-l-57607-712-2.Massey, Reginald (2005). Azaadi!. Abhinav
Publications. ISBN 978-81-7017-469-l.Pradhan, R.D. (1999). Debacle to Revival: Y.B. Chavan as Defence
Minister, 1962-65. Orient Blackswan. xii; 316. ISBN 978-81-250-1477-5.Pradhan, R. D.; Chavan, Yashwantrao
Balwantrao (2007). 1965 War, the Inside Story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's Diary of India-Pakistan War.
Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, xviii; 141. ISBN 978-8 1-269-0762-5. Praval, Karam Chand (1975). India's
Paratroopers (A History of the Parachute Regiment of India). Leo Cooper, London. ISBN 978-0-85052-184-9. Shiva,
Vandana (2005). India Divided: Diversity and Democracy Under Attack. Seven Stories Press. 191.
ISBN978-l-58322-540-0.Sisodia, N.S.; Bhaskar, Chitrapu Uday (2005). Emerging India: Security and Foreign
Policy Perspectives. Bibliophile South Asia, xx; 376. ISBN 978-81-86019-51-1. Sisson, Richard; Rose, Leo E.
(1991). War and Secession: Pakistan, India, and the Creation of Bangladesh (revised ed.). University of California
Press. ISBN 978-0-520-07665-5.Thomas, Raju G.C. (1996). India's Security Environment: Towards the Year 2000.
DIANE Publishing, iv; 33. ISBN 978-1 -4289- 1389-9.Warikoo, K. (2009). Himalayan Frontiers of India: Historical,
Geo-Political and Strategic Perspectives (Illustrated ed.). Taylor & Francis. xv; 240.
ISBN978-0-415-46839-8.Wilson, Stewart (2002). North American F-86 SABRE (Illustrated ed.). Wilson Media
Pty, Limited. 64. ISBN 978-l-876722-05-0.External links Official website of The Indian Air Force Indian Air Force
on bharat-rakshak.com Global Security article on Indo-Pakistani Wars Designators Batches of Indian Air Force

Pakistan Air Force

110

Pakistan Air Force

Pakistan Air Force

o

Pakistan Air Force Ensign

Founded

14 August 1947

Country

Pakistan

Size

65,000 full-time personnel
(including 3,000 pilots)
10,000 reservists
902 aircrafts

Part of

Pakistan Armed Forces

Air
Headquarters

AHQ, Islamabad

Anniversaries

Air Force Day: September 7

Engagements

1947 Indo-Pak War

1965 Rann of Kutch Skirmish

1965 Indo-Pak War

1971 Indo-Pak War

1979-1988 Soviet-Afghan War

1999 Kargil Conflict

2001-2002 Indo-Pak Stand-off

War in North- West Pakistan (2007-present)

Commanders

Chief of Air
Staff

Air Chief Marshal Tahir Rafique Butt

Notable
commanders

ACM Farooq Feroze Khan
ACM Anwar Shamim
AM Malick Nur Khan

Insignia

PAF Roundel

o

PAF Fin flash

Q

Aircraft flown

Attack

Mirage 5

Electronic
warfare

Falcon DA-20, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C, Shaanxi AEW&C

Fighter

F-16C/D, F-16A/B, IF- 17, Mirage III, F-7P/PG

Helicopter

AlouetteUI, Mi-171

Pakistan Air Force

111

Reconnaissance

Mirage IIIRP, Falco UAV, Jasoos II Bravo+

Trainer
Transport

FT-5, K-8P, MFI-17, MFI-395, C-12, T-37

An-26, Boeing 707, Airbus A310, Cessna Citation V, Gulfstream IV, C-130, CN-235, IL-78MP, Phenom 100,
Fokker F27 Friendship, Saab 2000

The Pakistan Air Force (Urdu: <LoLai i_S"L; English IPA: pak h fiz h ce'jd, Pak Fiza'ya), abbrieviated as PAF, is the
leading air warfare and the uniform service branch of the Pakistan Armed Forces, primarily tasked with the aerial
offense and defence of Islamic Republic of Pakistan with a secondary role of providing air logistics support to the
Pakistan Army and the Pakistan Navy. The PAF also has a tertiary role of providing strategic air transport and
logistics capability to Pakistan. The PAF employs approximately 65,000 full-time personnel (including
approximately 3,000 pilots) and, currently, operates 550 combat aircraft as well as various transport and training

aircraft

[l]

History

In 1933, British colonial government of India established the subcontinent's first Air Force station near Drigh Road,
now called PAF Base Faisal. In 1934, this element of the Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) was extended to the North
for operations in the North West Frontier Province. Later the RIAF contributed to the defeat of the Japanese invasion
during World War II.

1947-1951: The Formative Years

The Royal Pakistan Air Force (RPAF) was established on 14 August

1947 with the independence of Pakistan from British India. The RPAF

began with 2,332 personnel, a fleet of 24 Tempest II fighter-bombers,

16 Hawker Typhoon fighters, 2 H.P.57 Halifax bombers, 2 Auster

aircraft, 12 North American Harvard trainers and 10 de Havilland

Tiger Moth biplanes. It also received 8 C-47 Dakota cargo planes

which it used to transport supplies to soldiers fighting in the 1947 War

in Kashmir against India. However, the RPAF did not receive all of the

aircraft that it was originally allotted at the time of independence of South Asia. L ^ J It started with 7 operational

airbases scattered all over the provinces. The prefix Royal was removed when Pakistan became a republic on 23

March 1956. It has since been called the Pakistan Air Force (PAF).

Operating these inherited aircraft was far from ideal in Pakistan's diverse terrains, deserts, and mountains, with
frequent attrition and injuries resulting. However, by 1948 the air force acquired better aircraft such as the Hawker
Sea Fury fighter-bomber and the Bristol Freighter. These new aircraft gave a much-needed boost to the morale and
combat capability of the Pakistan Air Force; 93 Hawker Fury and roughly 50-70 Bristol Freighter aircraft were
inducted into the PAF by 1950.

PAF Hawker Sea Fury two-seat trainer

[2]

Pakistan Air Force

112

The F-86 Sabre was in PAF service from 1955 to
1980.

1951-1961: PAF enters the Jet Age

Although the Pakistan Air Force had limited funds to utilize and few
markets to choose from, it entered the jet age relatively early. Initially
it planned to acquire U.S. built F-94Cs, F-86s, or F-84s and produce its
order in Pakistan. However, lack of funds and strong British pressure
persuaded the PAF to acquire the British Supermarine Attacker. The
Supermarine Attacker had a rather unsatisfactory service in the
Pakistan Air Force with frequent attrition and maintenance problems.
In 1957 the Pakistan Air Force received 100 American-built F-86
Sabres under the U.S. aid program. Many squadrons in the PAF retired
its Hawker Furys and Supermarine Attackers, and replaced them with
F-86 jet fighters. In 1957 thirty-six year old Air Marshal Asghar Khan
became the Pakistan Air Force's first commander-in-chief.

1959: PAF Draws First Blood'

On 10 April 1959, on the occasion of the Islamic Eid ul-Fitr festival
holiday in Pakistan, an Indian Air Force (IAF) English Electric
Canberra B(I)58 entered Pakistani airspace on a photo reconnaissance
mission. Two PAF F-86F Sabres from No. 15 Squadron on Air
Defence Alert (ADA) were scrambled from Peshawar Air Base to
intercept the IAF aircraft. The Sabre pilots were Fit. Lt. M. N. Butt
(leader) and Fit. Lt. M. Yunis (wingman)(Later Air Vice Marshal)

whereas Pilot Officer Rab Nawaz was the on-duty Air Defence Controller for this mission. Nawaz successfully
vectored both Sabres to the location of the high-flying Canberra. Butt attempted to bring down the Canberra by firing
his Sabre's machine guns, but the Canberra was flying at an altitude of more than 50,000 feet - beyond the
operational ceiling of the F-86F. When Yunis took over from his leader, the Canberra suddenly lost height while
executing a turn over Rawalpindi. Yunis grabbed this opportunity and fired a burst from his 12.7 mm guns that
struck the Canberra at an altitude of 47,500 feet and brought it down over Rawat, near Rawalpindi. Marking the first
aerial victory of the PAF . '55-5005' was the serial number of the F-86F Sabre that was flown by Fit. Lt. Yunis that
day. Both the occupants of the IAF Canberra, namely Sqn. Ldr. J.C. Sen Gupta (pilot) and Fit. Lt. S.N. Rampal
(navigator) from the IAF's No. 106 Sqn., ejected and were captured by Pakistani authorities and were subsequently
released after remaining in detention for some time

Flying Officer Waleed Ehsanul Karim poses in
front of his F-86.

[3]

1965 India-Pakistan Rann of Kutch Border Skirmish

In June 1965, prior to the outbreak of the 1965 India-Pakistan War, India and Pakistan had a border skirmish in the
Rann of Kutch region near the south-eastern coastline of Pakistan. The PAF was tasked with providing point-defence
to the Rann of Kutch region to prevent the Indian Air Force (IAF) from entering Pakistani airspace and attacking
Pakistan Army positions. On 24 June 1965, an IAF Ouragan fighter (Serial No. IC 698), flown by Fit. Lt. Rana Lai
Chand Sikka of No. 51 Auxiliary Squadron from the IAF's Jamnagar Air Station entered Pakistani airspace. A PAF
F-104A Starfighter from No. 9 Squadron intercepted the IAF fighter near Badin in Sindh, Pakistan. Just as the PAF
pilot locked on to the Indian fighter and was about to release his AIM-9B Sidewinder Air-to-Air Missile (AAM), the
Indian pilot lowered his aircraft's landing gear (an internationally recognized sign of aerial surrender). The IAF pilot
landed at an open field near Jangshahi village near Badin. The IAF pilot was taken prisoner and released on 14
August 1965 - as a goodwill gesture on the 18th Anniversary of Pakistan's Independence Day. The IAF Ouragan
fighter was retained by the PAF as a trophy and flown by a PAF pilot to an airbase in Karachi. (NOTE: This event is

Pakistan Air Force 113

not to be confused with the surrender of an IAF Gnat on 4 September 1965 during the 1965 India-Pakistan War,
which is on display at the PAF Museum Karachi)

1965 India-Pakistan War

The PAF fleet at the time consisted of 12 F-104 Starfighters, some 120
F-86 Sabres and around 20 B-57 Canberra bombers. The PAF claims

to have had complete air superiority over the battle area from the

T71
second day of operations.

Many publications have credited the PAF's successes to U.S.

equipment, claiming it to be superior to the aircraft operated by the

IAF and giving the PAF a "qualitative advantage". However some

people refute this argument. As per them, the IAF's MiG-21, Hawker

Hunter and Folland Gnat aircraft had better performance than the

PAF's F-86 fighters. [8] According to Air Cdre (retired) Sajad Haider, PAF B-57 Canberra bombers lined up at an

the F-86 Sabre was inferior in both power and speed to the IAF's

Hawker Hunter.

airbase.

According to Air Commodore (retired) Sajjad Haider who flew with No. 19 squadron, the F-104 Starfighter did not
deserve its reputation as "the pride of the PAF" because it "was unsuited to the tactical environment of the region. It
was a high-level interceptor designed to neutralize Soviet strategic bombers in altitudes above 40,000 feet."
Nevertheless the IAF is believed to have feared the Starfighter although, according to some, it was not as
effective as the IAF's Folland Gnat. According to Indian sources, the F-86F performed reasonably well against
the IAF Hawker Hunters but not as well against the Folland Gnat, which was nicknamed Sabre Slayer by the

IAp [12][13]

ri4i

According to Indian sources most aircraft losses of IAF were on ground while PAF lost most in aerial combat.
Even though the IAF flew a larger offensive air campaign by devoting 40% of its air effort to offensive air support
alone, according to Indian sources the majority of its losses came from aircraft destroyed on the ground through PAF
air strikes. The PAF without doubt, had achieved far more in terms of enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground but
the IAF had achieved much more in the close support role.

During the last days of the war Pakistani aircraft flew over Indian cities and airbases without any response from the
opposing side. Thus the outnumbered PAF emerged triumphant over a four times larger force, its air defence
controllers, engineers, logisticians and hands just as much the heroes as its pilots. At the end of the war, India had
lost 110 aircraft with 19 damaged, not including those destroyed on the ground at night, against a loss of 16 PAF

i [15]

planes.

1967 The Six-Day War

During this conflict the PAF sent personnel to Egypt, Jordan and Syria to support the Arabs in their battle against the
Israelis. PAF pilots managed to shoot down ten Israeli aircraft, including Mirages, Mysteres and Vautours, without
losses on their own side. The PAF pilots operated with Egyptian, Jordanese and Iraqi combat aircraft.

1971 India-Pakistan War

In December 1971, India and Pakistan went to war over East Pakistan. At the start of the war, the PAF inventory
contained around 270 combat aircraft while the IAF had over 1,200 - outnumbering the PAF 4:1 in West Pakistan

ri7i

and 10:1 in East Pakistan.

One of the major operations of the war by PAF was Operation Chengiz Khan which inflicted heavy damages to IAF
with all PAF fighters landing home unscratched.

Pakistan Air Force 1 14

At the end of the war, the Indian Air Force claimed that it had shot down 94 PAF aircraft (including 54 F-86 Sabres)

compared to 44 to 130 IAF aircraft losses. A later research, conducted by B. Harry, reported that the overall

T221
attrition rate (losses per 100 sorties) was 0.48 for the IAF and 1.42 for the PAF, the PAF flying 2914 combat

[23] [24] [251

sorties while the IAF flew 7,346 combat sorties during the conflict.

Close air support to the Pakistan Army was unexpectedly effective and the PAF is widely considered to have

[7]

neutralized the large difference in military strength of India and Pakistan.

1973 Yom Kippur War

During this war 16 PAF pilots volunteered to leave for the Middle East in order to support Egypt and Syria but by
the time they arrived Egypt had already agreed on a cease-fire. Syria remained in a state of war against Israel so the
PAF pilots became instructors there and formed the A-flight of 67 Squadron at Dumayr AB. Later on PAF pilot Fit.
Lt. Sattar Alvi was honoured by the Syrian government.

1979-1988 Soviet-Afghan War

In 1979, the PAF's Chief of Air Staff, Air Chief Marshal Anwar Shamim, was told by then President, and Chief of
Army Staff General Zia-ul-Haq, that Pakistan had reliable intels on Indian plans to attack and destroy the Pakistan's
nuclear research facilities at Kahuta. ACM Shamim told General Zia that, "Indian aircraft could reach the area in 3
minutes whereas the PAF would take 8 minutes, allowing the Indians to attack the facility and return before the PAF
could defend it". Because Kahuta was close to the Indian border it was decided that the best way to deter an Indian
attack would be to procure new advanced fighters and weaponry. These could be used to mount a retaliatory attack
on India's nuclear research facilities at Trombay in the event of an Indian attack on Kahuta. It was decided the most
suitable aircraft would be the F-16 Fighting Falcon, which the United States eventually agreed to supply after the
PAF refused to purchase the F-5E and F-5G In 1983, when the first batch of F-16s reached Pakistan, ACM Shamim
informed Zia of the PAF's capability to respond to an attack on the nuclear research facilities at Kahuta.

A letter of agreement for up to 28 F-16A's and 12 F-16B's was signed December 1981. The contracts, Peace Gate I
and Peace Gate II, were for 6 and 34 Block 15 models respectively which would be powered by the F100-PW-200
engine. The fist Peace Gate I aircraft was accepted at Fort Worth in October 1982. Two F-16A and four F-16B were
delivered to Pakistan in 1983, the first F-16 arriving at PAF Base Sargodha (now known as PAF Base Mushaf) on 15
January 1983 flown by Squadron Leader Shahid Javed. The 34 remaining Peace Gate II aircraft were delivered

[2Q][9Q]

between 1983 and 1987. Six F-16A and four F-16B Block 15 OCU models were ordered as attrition

replacements in December 1988 under the Peace Gate III contract. Another 60 F-16A/B were ordered in September
1989 under Peace Gate IV, but were later embargoed.

The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979, in support of the pro-Soviet government in Kabul, which was being
hard-pressed by Mujaheddin rebel forces, marked the start of a decade-long occupation. Mujaheddin rebels
continued to harass the occupying Soviet military force as well as the forces of the Afghan regime that it was
supporting. The war soon spilled over into neighboring Pakistan, with a large numbers of refugees fleeing to camps
across the border in an attempt to escape the conflict. In addition, many of the rebels used Pakistan as a sanctuary
from which to carry out forays into Afghanistan, and a steady flow of US-supplied arms were carried into
Afghanistan from staging areas in Pakistan near the border. This inevitably resulted in border violations by Soviet
and Afghan aircraft attempting to interdict these operations.

Between May 1986 and November 1988, PAF F-16s have shot down at least eight intruders from Afghanistan.
The first three of these (one Su-22, one probable Su-22, and one An-26) were shot down by two pilots from No. 9
Squadron. Pilots of No. 14 Squadron destroyed the remaining five intruders (two Su-22s, two MiG-23s, and one
Su-25). Most of these kills were by the AIM-9 Sidewinder, but at least one (a Su-22) was destroyed by cannon
fire. Flight Lieutenant Khalid Mahmoud is credited with three of these kills. One F-16 was lost in these battles
during an encounter between two F-16s and four Soviet Air Force MiG 23s on 29 April 1987. The pilot, Flight

Pakistan Air Force 115

T321
Lieutenant Shahid Sikandar Khan, ejected safely.

In 1985, Pakistan Air Force selected ATLIS II for its F-16 aircraft, making it the first non-European operator of this
system. ATLIS-II pod is carried on the 5L intake station on the F-16. First public demonstration of dropping Laser
Guided Bombs Laser guided bomb with ATLIS II was seen in Exercise High Mark 1989. Since then, ATLIS II has

been a key element of PAF' s precision strike capability. Over the years precision targeting has been a distinct

i T331

phenomenon over-viewed regularly in PAF s operational exercises.

The PAF is believed to have evaluated the Dassault Mirage 2000 in early 1981 and was planning to evaluate the
F-16 Fighting Falcon afterwards.

Project Sabre II was initiated by the PAF in 1987 and was aimed at developing a replacement for the aging Shenyang
F-6 fleet. The Pak-American relationship were at a high during the Afghan-Soviet war, and Grumman Aerospace
was asked to conduct a design study and consult on this project, with Pakistan and China being the expected
end-users. However, after the Afghan-Soviet war ended, the subsequent US-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, and
those on China resulted in Grumman Aerospace backing out, and the project was abandoned. The Chengdu F-7P was
introduced in 1988 to replace the F-6.

1990-2001: The Lost Decade

Pakistan Air Force

Pakistan Air Force

116

History

History of the PAF

Aircraft

Air Force weaponry

Units and infrastructure

Air Headquarters

Pakistan Air Force Squadrons

Air Force Bases

Special Services Wing

Air Force Strategic Command

Personnel

Chief of Air Staff

Joint Chiefs of Staff Committee

Other information

Air Force Educational System

Air intelligence

After the Pressler amendment was passed, the U.S. placed sanctions and an arms embargo on Pakistan on 6 October
1990 due to the country's continued nuclear weapons programme. All eleven Peace Gate III F-16s, along with 7

F-16A and 10 F-16B of the 60 Peace Gate IV F-16s, which had been built by the end of 1994 were embargoed and

r2sir2Qi
put into storage in the United States.

Desperate for a new high-tech combat aircraft, between late 1990 and 1993 the PAF evaluated the European Panavia
Tornado MRCA (multi-role combat aircraft) and rejected it. The Mirage 2000E and an offer from Poland for the
supply of MiG-29 and Su-27 were also considered but nothing materialised. In 1992 the PAF again looked at the
Mirage 2000, reviving a proposal from the early 1980s to procure around 20-40 aircraft, but again a sale did not
occur because France did not want to sell a fully capable version due to political reasons. In August 1994 the PAF
was offered the Saab JAS-39 Gripen by Sweden, but again the sale did not occur because 20% of the Gripen's

components were from the U.S. and Pakistan was still under U.S. sanctions

[35]

In mid-1992 Pakistan was close to signing a contract for the supply of 40 Dassault Mirage 2000, equipped with

Thomson-CSF RDM/7 radars, from France

[36]

In mid- 1994 it was reported that the Russian manufacturers Sukhoi and Mikoyan were offering the Su-27 and

T371 T381

MiG-29. But Pakistan was later reported to be negotiating for supply of the Dassault Mirage 2000-5. French
and Russian teams visited Pakistan on 27 November 1994 and it was speculated that interest in the Russian aircraft

Pakistan Air Force 117

[391
was to pressure France into reducing the price of the Mirage 2000. Stated requirement was for up to 40 aircraft.

1999 India-Pakistan Kargil Conflict

The Pakistan Air Force (PAF) did not see active combat during the low-intensity Kargil Conflict between India and
Pakistan during the summer of 1999 but remained on high air defence alert (ADA) and performed F-16 and F-7MP
combat air patrols (CAPs) near the eastern border with India. The PAF closely monitored and tracked the IAF's
movements near the Line of Control in Kashmir as well as the India-Pakistan international border.

2008 Air Alert

After the 2008 Bombay attacks PAF was put on high alert and asked to carry out combat patrols. PAF was put on
high alert after the Indian Foreign Minister's threat and denial phone call incident.

Pakistani press reported an outstanding order to launch a counter attack in case of an air attack from India after
Indian Foreign Minister Pranab Mukherjee threatened Pakistani President in rough tone.

On the morning of 14 December Indian aircraft started moving towards Pakistan, PAF moved swiftly and intercepted
them before they entered international borders. Two of the aircraft did cross the border but Indian aircraft managed
to turn back. PAF was ordered to carry on the defensive combat patrols but avoid hostile action unless further hostile
action was to take place.

2011 Abottabad Operation

An initial investigation report revealed that the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) reported the movement of some
half-a-dozen planes near the Jalalabad border at 1 1 pm before the US helicopters entered Abbottabad to kill Osama

bin Laden. "One aircraft was identified as a US AW ACS and the remaining five were recognised as F-18 jets of the

T431
US. These planes flew near the Pakistani border, but did not cross into the airspace of Pakistan, PAF was

working under the peace time conditions prior to May 2 incident on the eastern border.Defence Secretary Lt-Gen

(retd) Syed Athar Ali provided a detailed statement explaining the salient features of Pakistan's defence policy. "He

apprised the commission that none of the government departments including the ministry of defence, the Joint Staff

Headquarters or any military service ever considered the US or Afghanistan a direct threat," said an official handout

T441
issued after the meeting. On learning about the intrusion, The PAF Jets were scrambled and PAF immediately

took adequate operational measures as per standard operating procedure.

The PAF aircraft continued their presence in Abbottabad area till early morning and later returned to their air
bases.

Counter-insurgency Operations and Modernization

Counter-insurgency operations

The Pakistan Army faced several problems during its 2009 offensive against the Taliban in north-west Pakistan.
Hundreds of thousands of Pakistanis vacated the area when the offensive was announced and, eventually, over 2
million had to be accommodated in refugee camps. The offensive was to be completed as quickly as possible to
allow the refugees to return to their homes but the army's fleet attack helicopters were not sufficient to provide
adequate support to the infantry. The PAF was sent into action against the Taliban to make up for the lack of
helicopter gunships. Because the PAF was trained and equipped to fight a conventional war, a new "counter-terrorist
doctrine" had to be improvised.

The PAF's Saffron Bandit 2009/2010 exercise focused on extensive training of combat personnel to undertake COIN
operations. New equipment was inducted to improve the PAF's joint intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance
(ISR) capabilities. A C-130 transport aircraft was indigenously modified for day/night ISR operations.

Pakistan Air Force

118

The PAF had initially been forced to use Google Earth for reconnaissance imagery until high resolution infra-red

sensors were provided by the U.S. prior to the army's 2009 campaign in the Swat valley. These were installed on

around 10 of the PAF's F-16 Fighting Falcon fighters and used to gather detailed reconnaissance imagery of the

entire valley. During close air support missions for Pak Army from late 2008 to mid-2009, PAF conducted more than

5,500 bombing missions and dropped 10,600 bombs in northwest tribal areas. Use of laser-guided bombs was

increased to 80% of munitions used, as compared to 40% in the previous 2008 Bajaur campaign. A small corps of

[49]
ground spotters were trained and used by the PAF, in addition to PA spotters, to identify high value targets.

Prior to the PA's offensive into South Waziristan the PAF attacked militant infrastructure with 500 lb and 2000 lb

bombs

[49]

A number of civilian deaths occurred during PAF air strikes on 10 April 2010 in the Khyber tribal region. According
to a Pakistani military source, the first bombing was targeted at a gathering of militants in a compound. Local
people, who had quickly moved onto the scene to recover the dead and wounded, were then killed during a second
air strike. There was no confirmed death toll but at least 30 civilian deaths had occurred according to the military
source, whereas a local official stated at least 73 locals, including women and children, were killed. A
six-member committee of tribal elders from the area, tasked with finding the exact number of civilian casualties,
reported that 61 civilians were killed and 21 wounded. This was not confirmed by military or political leaders but
Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff, General Ashfaq Kayani, gave a public apology on 17 April. It is reported that

BBC news and several other media correspondences were not allowed to take interviews from injured which makes
the whole episode more mysterious.

Modernisation and acquisitions

In light of Pakistan's significant contribution to the War on
Terror, the United States and Western European countries,

namely Germany and France, lifted their defense related sanctions on
Pakistan; enabling the country to once again seek advanced Western
military hardware. Since the lifting of sanctions, the Pakistan Air Force
(PAF) became heavily active in evaluating potential military hardware
such as new fighter aircraft, radars and land based air-defense systems.
However the urgent relief needed in Kashmir after the 2005 Kashmir
earthquake forced the Pakistani military to stall its modernisation
programme so it could divert its resources for fuel and operations
during the rescue efforts.

The first F-16D Block 52+ fighter of PAF, rolled

out on 13 October 2009, undergoing flight testing

in the U.S. prior to delivery.

The modernisation stall ended in April 2006 when the Pakistani

cabinet approved the PAF's proposals to procure new aircraft and systems from several sources, including modern

combat aircraft from the U.S. and China. The AFFDP 2019 (Armed Forces Development Programme 2019) would

oversee the modernisation of the Pakistan Air Force from 2006 to 2019

[56]

The Bush administration on July 24, 2008 informed the US Congress it plans to shift nearly $230 million of $300

1571
million in aid from counterterrorism programs to upgrading Pakistan's aging F-16s. The Bush administration

previously announced on June 27, 2008 it was proposing to sell Pakistan ITT Corporation's electronic warfare gear

rcoi

valued at up to $75 million to enhance Islamabad's existing F-16s. Pakistan has asked about buying as many as 21
AN/ALQ-211(V)9 Advanced Integrated Defensive Electronic Warfare Suite pods, or AIDEWS, and related
equipment. The proposed sale will ensure that the existing fleet is "compatible" with new F-16 Block 50/52
fighters being purchased by Islamabad.

After 9/1 1 the U.S. and Pakistan began discussing the release of the embargoed F-16s and a purchase of new aircraft.
Of the 28 F-16A/B built under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts and embargoed in 1990, 14 delivered as EDA (Excess
Defense Articles) from 2005 to 2008., [60] two of which were delivered on 10 July 2007. [61]

Pakistan Air Force 119

Between 2005 and 2008, 14 F-16A/B Block 15 OCU fighters were delivered to the PAF under renewed post-9/11
ties between the U.S. and Pakistan. These had originally been built for Pakistan under the Peace Gate III/IV contracts
but were never delivered due to the U.S. arms embargo imposed in 1990.

To upgrade the F-16A/B fleet, 32 Falcon STAR kits were purchased for the original Peace Gate I aircraft and 35
Mid-Life Update (MLU) kits were ordered, with 11 more MLU kits optional, in . 4 F-16A/B being upgraded in the
U.S. to F-16AM/BM, delivery expected December 2011. F-16A/B in PAF service to be upgraded starting
October 2010 by Turkish Aerospace Industries, 1 per month.

The Peace Drive I contract for 12 F-16C and 6 F-16D Block 52+ (Advanced Block 52) aircraft, powered by

F100-PW-229 engines was signed on 30 September 2006. The first F-16 to be completed, an F-16D, was

rolled out on 13 October 2009 and began flight testing. [67][68][69][70][71] The first batch of F-16C/D Block 52+, two

[72] [731
F-16D and one F-16C, landed at PAF Base Shahbaz, Jacobabad, on 26 June 2010 and one more F-16C was

received by 5 July 2010. [74]

On 13 December 2008, the Government of Pakistan stated that two Indian Air Force aircraft were intercepted by the

[75]
PAF kilometres within Pakistani airspace. This charge was denied by the Indian government.

During talks with a delegation from the French Senate on Monday 28 September 2009, Prime Minister Yousuf Raza
Gilani stated that the PAF had used most of its stockpile of laser-guided munitions against militants in the Malakand
and FATA regions and that replacements for such types of equipment were urgently required.

December 2009 saw the delivery of the PAF's first Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C from Sweden and I1-78MP Midas
aerial refuelling tanker/military transport aircraft from Ukraine.

The PAF is reported to be considering purchasing the Hongdu L-15 advanced jet trainer to train pilots for high-tech
fighters such as the FC-20. Extensive evaluations of the aircraft took place in Pakistan during December 2009.

On 26 June 2010 the first batch of 3 F-16C/D Block 52+ fighters were delivered to PAF Base Shahbaz,

TOO]

Jacobabad. According to Air Chief Marshal Rao Qamar Suleman (the then Chief of Air Staff) the new fighters

roi]

would eliminate the PAF's limitations in precision night-time strike operations, the existing capability being
based on around 34 Dassault Mirage 5 fighters upgraded with new avionics for night-time precision strike missions
under the Retrofit Of Strike Element (ROSE) programme during 1 999-2004. [84][85][86] SABIR (Special Airborne
Mission Installation & Response System) which is a FLIR System that has Brite Star II and Star Safire III EO/IR
sensors installed on the one 0130. (this a 'bolt on system' and is installed in place of the parachute door) This system
was extensively used during operation in FATA.

Exercises

The PAF sent a contingent of six F-16A/B fighters to the international
Anatolian Eagle 2004 exercise in Turkey.

After around 1 year of planning, in 2005 the PAF launched the High
Mark 2005 exercise which lasted for one month and also involved the
Pakistan Army and Pakistan Navy. The scenario saw two opposing
forces, Blueland and Foxland, engaging in simulated combat involving
both offensive and defensive operations. It was stated that the exercise
would have 3 stages and PAF aircraft would fly 8200 sorties.

A PAF F-7PG flies alongside a Mirage 2000-9

Involvement of army and navy units was aimed at providing more ,„,„_., , ,_„ . , . ,,, , ur . r

J J f b and F-16E/F Block 60 fighters of the UAEAF and

realistic operational scenarios. High Mark 2005 followed the a RJAF F-16 during ATLC 2009.

Tempest- 1 exercise which was focused purely on air power but
differed in terms of duration, intensity and complexity of air operations.

A contingent of six F-16A/B fighters was sent to Turkey's international Anatolian Eagle 2006 exercise. In 2008 the
Turkish Air Force sent five F-16C/D fighters and 50 personnel of 191 Kobras Filo (191 Cobras Squadron) to

Pakistan Air Force

120

Pakistan to take part in the joint Operation Indus Viper 2008 exercise at PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha)

[88]

In the summer of 2005 a PAF team of 20 airmen, including pilots, navigators, engineers, maintenance technicians

and a C-130E was sent to the U.S. to take part in the AMC (Air Mobility Command) Rodeo
part in the July 2007 AMC Rodeo. [91][92]

[90]

The PAF later took

A PAF Mirage III of No. 7 Bandits Squadron

alongside a US Navy F-18 and F-16s of the

U.S.A.F. andR.J.A.F.

In 2009, while undertaking combat operations against militants in
FATA and Swat, the PAF initiated the Saffron Bandit exercise with the
aim of training the PAF's entire combat force to undertake such

[93] [94]

anti-terrorist operations.

In December 2009 the PAF sent six Chengdu F-7PG fighters, of No.
31 Wing based at PAF Base Samungli, to the United Arab Emirates to
take part in the Air Tactics Leadership Course (ATLC), also known as

Operation Iron Falcon, at Al Dhafra Air Base

[95] [96] [97]

PAF F-16s arrive at Red Flag 2010 in Nevada

_^^^^__ The PAF's High Mark 2010 exercise was launched on 15 March 2010,

the first time a High Mark exercise had been conducted since 2005,
after all PAF received their Air Tasking Orders (ATO). The
1^%r^ ^^ country-wide exercise involved units based all over Pakistan, from

Skardu to the Arabian Sea, at all Main Operating Bases and Forward
Operating Bases. Joint operations involving the Pakistan Army and
Pakistan Navy were also conducted, aiming to test and improve
integration and cooperation between the three arms. Operations
emphasised a near-realistic simulation of the war-time environment,
exposure of PAF aircrews to contemporary concepts of air combat,
new employment concepts and joint operations between air force, army and navy. New inductions such as the JF-17
Thunder fighter, Saab 2000 Erieye AEW&C and 11-78 Multi-Role Tanker Transports also took part. [98] On 6 April
2010 the end of the first phase of exercise High Mark 2010 was celebrated with a firepower demonstration at the
PAF's firing range facility in the deserts of Thai. The 90 minute demo involved the new JF-17 Thunder fighter, Saab
2000 Erieye AEW&C and 11-78 MRTT aircraft. The H-2 SOW (Stand-Off Weapon) was also shown to the public for
the first time, being launched from around 60 km away before hitting its target, and a mock counter-insurgency
operation was performed by troops. The demo heralded the beginning of High Mark 2010's second phase where the
PAF would practice joint operations with the Pakistan Army during the army's exercise Azm-e-Nau-3 (New Resolve
3). During High Mark 2010 a Chengdu F-7 and Mirage 5 fighter (flown by Squadron Leader Nasir Mehmood and
Wing Commander Atta ur Rehman respectively) practised landing, refuelling and take-off operations from a
Pakistani motorway. It was reported that the PAF is in negotiations with the Ministry of Communications to set up
all required facilities for Air Force operations on the motorways and highways of Pakistan.

Pakistan Air Force

121

A PAF F-16 is refuelled in-flight by

a U.S.A.F. KC-135 tanker during

Red Flag 2010.

In July 2010 the PAF sent six F-16B fighters of No. 9 Griffins
Squadron and 100 PAF personnel to Nellis Air Force Base in the
U.S.A. to participate in the international Red Flag exercise for the first
time. During the exercise the PAF pilots practised in-flight refuelling
of their F-16s with the KC-135 Stratotanker. [102][103][104][105][106]

A PAF Mirage III competes in the Alert Scramble

Competition during Falcon Air Meet 2010 in

Jordan.

TEJ External videos

Mirage III ROSE fighters of the PAF's No. 7 Bandits Squadron take part in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise

[107]

In October 2010 the PAF's No. 7 Bandits Squadron sent a team of its Dassault Mirage III ROSE fighters to Jordan to
participate in the Falcon Air Meet 2010 exercise at Azraq Royal Jordanian Air Base. January 2011 saw a

PAF contingent of F-16A/B and Dassault Mirage fighters take part in the Al-Saqoor II exercise in Saudi Arabia with
the Royal Saudi Air Force. [109][110][111]

In March 2011 a joint Sino-Pakistani exercise, Shaheen 1, was conducted involving a contingent of Chinese aircraft
and personnel from the PLAAF. Information on which aircraft were used by each side in the exercise was not
released, but photos of Pakistani pilots inspecting what appeared to be Chinese Shenyang J-11B fighters were
released on the internet. The exercise lasted for around 4 weeks and was the first time the PLAAF had deployed to
and conducted "operational" aerial maneuvers in Pakistan with the PAF

[113]

Pakistan Air Force

122

Organization

The Air Force has about 65,000 active personnel with about 10,000 reserves. The Chief of the Air Staff holds the
operational and administrative powers. He is assisted by a Vice Chief of Air Staff and six Deputy Chiefs of the Air
Staff who control and administer the Administration, Operations, Engineering, Supply (logistics), Personnel, and
Training divisions of the PAF respectively. Recently, the Air Headquarters (AHQ) has been moved from Chaklala to
Islamabad. Major Air force bases are at Shorkot, Karachi, Quetta, Kamra, Peshawar, Mianwali, Sargodha and
Risalpur. There are many war-time operational forward bases, civilian airstrips and runways as well as emergency
motorways.

Commands

• Air Force Strategic Command (AFSC), Islamabad

• Northern Air Command (NAC), Peshawar

• Central Air Command (CAC), Lahore

• Southern Air Command (SAC), Karachi

• Air Defence Command (ADC), Chaklala, Rawalpindi

Bases

[114],

These are the bases from which the PAF planes operate during peace time. They have complete infrastructure of
hardened shelters, control towers, workshops, ordnance depots etc. There are ten flying bases and also seven
non-flying bases:

Flying bases

PAF Base Mushaf (Sargodha)

PAF Base Masroor (Karachi)

PAF Base Rafiqui (Shorkot)

PAF Base Peshawar (Peshawar)

PAF Base Samungli (Quetta)

PAF Base Mianwali (Mianwali)

PAF Base Minhas (Kamra)

PAF Base Chaklala (Rawalpindi)

PAF Base Faisal (Karachi)

PAF Base Risalpur (Pakistan Air Force Academy) (Risalpur)

PAF Base Shahbaz (Jacobabad)

Non-flying bases

PAF Base Korangi Creek (Karachi)
PAF Base Malir (Karachi)
PAF Base Kohat (Kohat)
PAF Base Lahore (Lahore)
PAF Base Sakesar (Sakesar)
PAF Base Lower Topa (Murree)
PAF Base Kalabagh (Nathia Gali)

Rank structure

Structure of the Commissioned officer rank of the Pakistan Air Force

Pakistan Air Force

123

Pay grade

Insignia

O-10

0-9 0-8

0-7

0-6

0-5

0-4

m

0-3

0-2 O-l

HB|

Title

Abbreviation

Air

Chief

Marshal

ACM

Air Marshal Air-vice Air-Commodore Group-Captain
Marshal

AM

AVM

Air Cdre

Gr Capt

Wing-Commander

WCdr

Squadron
Leader

S/Ldr

Flight
Lieutenant

FtLt

Flying Pilot
Officer Officer

F/O P/O

NATO Code

Rank
Hierarchy

OF- 10

4-star

Air

Marshal

OF-9

OF-1

3-star 2-star

Air-Marshall Air-Marshal

OF-7
1-star Officer

OF-6

OF-5

OF-4

OF-3

OF-2 OF-1

Structure of the Enlisted rank of the Pakistan Air Force

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128

Naval hostilities

Operation Dwarka

Operation Dwarka, also known as "Operation Somnath", was a naval operation commenced by the Pakistan
Navy to attack the Indian coastal town of Dwarka on 7 September 1965. This was the first use of Pakistan Navy in
any of the Indo-Pakistan Wars. It was one of the significant naval events of the 1965 Indo-Pak war, and Pakistan
celebrates September 8 as "Victory Day" for Pakistan Navy.

As the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 broke out between India and Pakistan over Kashmir, armies and air forces of both
nations were involved in intense fighting in the Punjab region and in Kashmir. To relieve pressure on the southern
front, Pakistan decided to use its navy in the war by launching a quick strike on Indian coast. The primary objective
of the attack was to destroy the radar station at Dwarka which Pakistani Naval intelligence believed had a Huff/Duff
beacon to guide Indian bombers. Pakistani high command also hoped to divert the operations of the Indian Air
Force away from the north.

Objectives

The mission objectives of Pakistan Navy are listed below.:

• To draw the heavy enemy units out of Bombay for the submarine PNS Ghazi to attack.

• To destroy the radar installation at Dwarka.

• To lower Indian morale.

• To divert Indian Air Force effort away from the north.

The Naval attack

On the night of September 7 Pakistan Navy launched its assault on Western Indian shores. Dwarka was chosen for
its proximity (200 km from Karachi Port), its lower defences and historical relevance. The plan called for a fleet of 7
naval vessels of Pakistan to bomb the tiny town of Dwarka. It was aimed at luring the major ships anchored in
Bombay to attack the Pakistan ships. The intention was that the submarine PNS Ghazi lurking in the Arabian Sea
would then take out the Indian ships. Accordingly a fleet of seven ships comprising PNS Babur, PNS Khaibar, PNS
Badr, PNS Jahangir, PNS Alamgir, PNS Shah Jahan and PNS Tipu Sultan set sail for Dwarka and bombed the tiny
town.

The heavy ships could not be attacked by the submarine PNS Ghazi as the ships in Bombay were under refit, and it
did not encounter the active combatants on the West coast. The objective to divert the Indian Air Force attacking
Pakistan's Southern front worked as the Indian Airforce raids on the city of Karachi ceased, presumed by Pakistani
sources to be due to lack of availability of the radar guidance to the IAF fighter jets, which was damaged in the
attack.

Indian Navy's official version states that at around 2355 hours, the Pakistani vessels fired over the main temple of
Dwarka for more than 20 minutes. The ships fired around 50 shells each, which included some 5.25 inch rounds
fired by the Pak cruiser PNS Babur. It adds that most shells fell between the temple and the railway station, which
lay 3 km from the lighthouse. Some buildings were hit, with only the Railway Guest House suffering some minor
damages and a cement factory of Associated Cement Company was also hit and smoke could be seen 20 km away by
Pakistani ships.

Operation Dwarka 129

The radar installation was shelled during the bombardment but neither the radar was damaged nor were any
casualties reported by Indian sources. A frigate INS Talwar was in nearby Okha port undergoing repairs and did
not intervene. Hiranandani's history of the Indian Navy states that:

Next morning she (INS Talwar) was directed to send a team to Dwarka to assess the damage. The team found
that most of the shells had fallen on the soft soil between the temple and the radio station and failed to
explode. The air attack had damaged a railway engine and blown off a portion of a railway guesthouse.

A total of forty unexploded shells were also recovered intact. Interestingly, the shells bore the mark "INDIAN
ORDNANCE"; these were dated from the 1940s - period before the Partition of India and creation of India and
Pakistan.

Radio Pakistan, however, transmitted that Dwarka was badly destroyed.

Naval Command

The following is the list of Commanding officers of the Operation Dwarka:

Commodore S.M. Anwar, OTC - Officer Commanding of Operation Dwarka
Captain MAK Lodhi - Officer commanding of PNS Babur, the destroyer.
Captain A Hanif-Officer Commanding of PNS Khaibar, the destroyer.
Commander IH Malik - Commanding officer of PNS Badr, the frigate.
Commander KM Hussain - Commanding officer of PNS Jahangir, the cruiser.
Commander Iqbal F. Quadir - Commanding officer of PNS Alamgir, the destoyer.
Commander SZ Shamsie - Commanding officer of PNS Shah Jahan, the destroyer.
Commander Amir Aslam - Commanding officer of PNS Tipu Sultan, the destroyer.
Commander Karamat Rahman Niazi - Commanding officer of PNS Ghazi, the submarine.

Aftermath

Operation Dwarka was a significant naval operation of the 1965 war, considered by some as a nuisance raid or of
little strategic value. The Ministry of Defence had issued written instructions which ordered the Indian Navy

"not to proceed two hundred miles beyond Bombay nor North of the parallel of Porbander". The lack of response
by the Indian Navy to the attack on Dwarka led to questions being asked in Indian parliament and was considered
a humiliation by Indian citizens and Navy personnel and a challenge to be answered by others. The Chief of

Naval Staff, Vice Admiral B.S. Soman was restrained from retaliation for the Dwarka raid by the Defence
Minister. Of the Indian Navy's 23 ships, ten were under refit in Bombay, including the Vikrant, the cruiser Delhi,

three destroyers and two frigates. An Indian source explained this by saying that the Indian Government did not

ri2i
want to get into a naval conflict with Pakistan, but wished to restrict the war to a land-based conflict. The failure

ri3i

of INS Talwar to retaliate, then undergoing repairs to her condensors in Okha, has been lamented by Indian Vice
Admiral N. Krishnan who said that no Government would blame a warship going into action, if attacked. PNS

Ghazi continued to patrol Kachhh and Bombay coasts spotting aircraft positions when snorkeling.

The Dwarka raid is considered by Pakistani sources as being a prime reason for the Indian Navy's subsequent
post-war modernization and expansion, with an increase in budget from Rs. 35 crores to Rs. 115 crores. The
Dwarka raid, as per an Indian historian G M Hiranandani, led to the procurement of missile boats by the Indian
Navy from the Soviet Union for the Defense of Kutch. These were subsequently used by India in Operation Trident
in the 1971 war. However, he attributes the expansion of the Indian Navy in the period 1965 to 1975 to the

post- 1962 planned expansion of the Indian Navy with many ships being negotiated and purchased from the Soviet

tt • ■ t ,u [4]:8-ll

Union prior to the war.

Operation Dwarka 130

Popular culture

In 1998, Inter Services Public Relations (ISPR) financed and produced the dramatization of the operation named,
"Operation Dwarka, 1965", which was based on this incident. The film was directed by Pakistani film director
Qasim Jalali and it was written by Hameed Kashmiri.

References

[I] Gupta, Om (1 April 2006). Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh (http://books.google.com/books?id=VYlnTMBQ9vQC&
pg=PA1794). Gyan Publishing House, pp. 1794-1795. ISBN 978-81-8205-389-2. . Retrieved 8 November 2011.

[2] Mohan, P. V. S. Jagan; Chopra, Samir (May 2005). The India-Pakistan air war of 1965 (http://books.google.com/

books?id=FAhuAAAAMAAJ). Manohar. p. 157. ISBN 978-81-7304-641-4. . Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[3] Hiranandani, "Transition to triumph", pp 34-35. FOCIF sailed with his flagship INS Mysore and three escorts out of Bombay harbour and

remained on station without encountering any Pakistani naval vessels till 8th when, the Talwar returning from Okha, joined her.
[4] Hiranandani, G. M. (January 2000). Transition to triumph: history of the Indian Navy, 1965-1975 (http://books.google.com/

books?id=zFyMKROi46kC&pg=PA33). Lancer Publishers, pp. 33-35. ISBN 978-1-897829-72-1. . Retrieved 7 November 201 1.
[5] Kavic, Lome J. (1967). India's quest for security: defence policies, 1947-1965 (http://books. google. com/books ?id=F_5CAAAAIAAJ).

University of California Press, p. 190. . Retrieved 8 November 201 1.
[6] Working paper, Issue 192 , Australian National University. Strategic and Defence Studies Centre, Research School of Pacific Studies,

Australian National University, 1989, isbn="073 1508068, 9780731508068"
[7] Ghosh, Anjali (1 September 2009). India's Foreign Policy (http://books. google. com/books?id=Y32u4JMroQgC). Pearson Education India.

ISBN 978-81-317-1025-8. . Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[8] Dittmer, Lowell (2005). South Asia's nuclear security dilemma: India, Pakistan, and China (http://books.google.com/

books?id=FuKWbnl-y5MC&pg=PA77). M.E. Sharpe. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-7656-1419-3. . Retrieved 8 November 2011.
[9] Pradhan, R. D.; Chavan, Yashwantrao Balwantrao (1 January 2007). 1965 war, the inside story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's diary of

India-Pakistan war (http://books.google.com/books?id=ymYCJQjEGBUC). Atlantic Publishers & Dist. p. 117. ISBN 978-81-269-0762-5. .

Retrieved 10 November 2011. The authors were the Defence Minister of India and his Private Secretary from 1962-65 (see pg xiii).
[10] Roy, Mihir K. (1995) pg. 84. "War in the Indian Ocean" (http://books.google.com/books?id=Tqr8r7EB18wC&pg=PA84#v=onepage&

q&f=false)

'But the Bombayites failed to understand the lack of success by the Indian fleet, especially with sirens
wailing, Jamnagar attacked and Dwarka shelled. But nonetheless, the naval bombardment of Dwarka
with the Indian fleet still preparing to sail was an affront to the sailors in white, who could not
understand what was holding the fleet back.'

[II] Qadir, Iqbal, Vice Admiral (retd) (1998). "Pakistan and its three wars" (http://www.defencejournal.com/march98/pak3warsl.htm).
www.defencejournal.com. . Retrieved 10 November 201 1.

[12] Hiranandani, Vice Adm Gulab, IN (Retd) (Spring 2002). "The Indian End Of The Telescope — India and Its Navy" (http://web. archive.

org/web/20060916122311/http://www. usnwc.edu/press/Review/2002/spring/art4-sp2. htm). Naval War College Review LV (2). .

Retrieved 08 November 2011.
[13] Hiranandani, "Transition to triumph", pp 34. Talwar encountering contamination of her boilers due to leakage of her condensors put in to

Okha for temporary repairs.
[14] Roy, Mihir K. (1995) "War in the Indian Ocean" (http://books.google.com/books?id=Tqr8r7EB18wC&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q&

f=false), pp 84-85.

'As Vice Admiral N. Krishnan is supposed to have said. "One of our frigates Talwar was at Okha. It is
unfortunate that she could not sail forth and seek battle. Even if there was a mandate against the Navy
participating in the war, no Government could blame a warship going into action, if attacked. An affront
to our national honour is no joke and we cannot laugh it away by saying All the Pakistani's did was to
kill a cow'. Let us at least create a memorial to the 'unknown cow' who died with her boots on in a battle
against the Pakistan Navy.'"

Operation Dwarka 131

External links

• Operation Dwarka (http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/HISTORY/DWARKA/history-dwarks.htm)

• The Shelling of Dwarka (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1965War/Dwarka.html)

132

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was a military conflict between India and Pakistan. Indian, Bangladeshi and
international sources consider the beginning of the war to be Operation Chengiz Khan, Pakistan's 3 December 1971
pre-emptive strike on 11 Indian airbases. Lasting just 13 days it is considered one of the shortest wars in

history.

During the course of the war, Indian and Pakistani forces clashed on the eastern and western fronts. The war
effectively came to an end after the Eastern Command of the Pakistani Armed Forces signed the Instrument of
Surrender, on 16 December 1971 following which East Pakistan seceded as the independent state of Bangladesh.
Between 90,000 and 93,000 members of the Pakistan Armed Forces including paramilitary personnel were taken as
Prisoners of War by the Indian Army It is estimated that between 2,000,000 and 3,000,000 civilians were killed

ro]

in Bangladesh, and up to four hundred thousand women raped by the Pakistani armed forces, especially
Hindus. As a result of the conflict, a further eight to ten million people fled the country at the time to seek

refuge in neighbouring India.

Background

The Indo-Pakistani conflict was sparked by the Bangladesh Liberation war, a conflict between the traditionally
dominant West Pakistanis and the majority East Pakistanis. The Bangladesh Liberation war ignited after the 1970
Pakistani election, in which the East Pakistani Awami League won 167 of 169 seats in East Pakistan and secured a
simple majority in the 313-seat lower house of the Majlis-e-Shoora (Parliament of Pakistan). Awami League leader
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman presented the Six Points to the President of Pakistan and claimed the right to form the
government. After the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, refused to yield the premiership of
Pakistan to Mujibur, President Yahya Khan called the military, dominated by West Pakistanis, to suppress
dissent.

Mass arrests of dissidents began, and attempts were made to disarm East Pakistani soldiers and police. After several
days of strikes and non-cooperation movements, the Pakistani military cracked down on Dhaka on the night of 25
March 1971. The Awami League was banished, and many members fled into exile in India. Mujib was arrested on
the night of 25—26 March 1971 at about 1:30 a.m. (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971) and taken to
West Pakistan. The next action carried out was Operation Searchlight, an attempt to kill the intellectual elite of the
east. [8]

On 27 March 1971, Ziaur Rahman, a major in the Pakistani army, declared the independence of Bangladesh on
behalf of Mujibur. In April, exiled Awami League leaders formed a government-in-exile in Baidyanathtala of
Meherpur. The East Pakistan Rifles, a paramilitary force, defected to the rebellion. Bangladesh Force namely Mukti
Bahini consisting of Niyomito Bahini (Regular Force) and Gono Bahini (Guerilla Force) was formed under the
Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) General Mohammad Ataul Ghani Osmany.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 133

India's involvement in Bangladesh Liberation War

The Pakistan army conducted a widespread genocide against the Bengali population of East Pakistan, aimed in
particular at the minority Hindu population, leading to approximately 10 million people fleeing East

Pakistan and taking refuge in the neighbouring Indian states. The East Pakistan-India border was opened to

allow refugees safe shelter in India. The governments of West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Meghalaya and Tripura
established refugee camps along the border. The resulting flood of impoverished East Pakistani refugees placed an

no]

intolerable strain on India's already overburdened economy.

General Tikka Khan earned the nickname 'Butcher of Bengal' due to the widespread atrocities he committed.
General Niazi commenting on his actions noted 'On the night between 25/26 March 1971 General Tikka struck.
Peaceful night was turned into a time of wailing, crying and burning. General Tikka let loose everything at his
disposal as if raiding an enemy, not dealing with his own misguided and misled people. The military action was a
display of stark cruelty more merciless than the massacres at Bukhara and Baghdad by Chengiz Khan and Halaku
Khan... General Tikka... resorted to the killing of civilians and a scorched earth policy. His orders to his troops were:

'I want the land not the people...' Major General Farman had written in his table diary, "Green land of East Pakistan

T211
will be painted red". It was painted red by Bengali blood.

T221
The Indian government repeatedly appealed to the international community, but failing to elicit any response,

Prime Minister Indira Gandhi on 27 March 1971 expressed full support of her government for the independence

struggle of the people of East Pakistan. The Indian leadership under Prime Minister Gandhi quickly decided that it

was more effective to end the genocide by taking armed action against Pakistan than to simply give refuge to those

who made it across to refugee camps. Exiled East Pakistan army officers and members of the Indian Intelligence

[231
immediately started using these camps for recruitment and training of Mukti Bahini guerrillas.

The mood in West Pakistan had also turned increasingly jingoistic and militaristic against East Pakistan and India.
By the end of September, an organised propaganda campaign, possibly orchestrated by elements within the
Government of Pakistan, resulted in stickers proclaiming Crush India becoming a standard feature on the rear

windows of vehicles in Rawalpindi, Islamabad and Lahore and soon spread to the rest of West Pakistan. By October,

T241
other stickers proclaimed Hang the Traitor in an apparent reference to Sheikh Mujibur Rahman.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

134

India's official engagement with Pakistan

Objective

By November, war seemed inevitable. Throughout
November, thousands of people led by West Pakistani
politicians marched in Lahore and across West
Pakistan, calling for Pakistan to Crush India.
India responded by starting a massive buildup of Indian
forces on the border with East Pakistan. The Indian
military waited until December, when the drier ground
would make for easier operations and Himalayan
passes would be closed by snow, preventing any
Chinese intervention. On 23 November, Yahya Khan
declared a state of emergency in all of Pakistan and told
his people to prepare for war.

On the evening of 3 December Sunday, at about

no]

5:40 p.m., the Pakistani Air Force (PAF) launched a
pre-emptive strike on eleven airfields in north-western
India, including Agra which was 300 miles (unknown
operator: u'strong 1 km) from the border. During this
attack the Taj Mahal was camouflaged with a forest of
twigs and leaves and draped with burlap because its

[291

marble glowed like a white beacon in the moonlight.

NFPfll Mow " ^^*£xlf,

r'XXXIII Corps

6(- ~

Illustration showing military units and troop movements during
operations in the Eastern sector of the war.

This preemptive strike known as Operation Chengiz

Khan, was inspired by the success of Israeli Operation Focus in the Arab-Israeli Six Day War. But, unlike the Israeli

attack on Arab airbases in 1967 which involved a large number of Israeli planes, Pakistan flew no more than 50

i t i a- [30][31]

planes to India.

In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi held that the air strikes were a
declaration of war against India and the Indian Air Force responded with initial air strikes that very night.

These air strikes were expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning and thereafter which followed
interceptions by Pakistanis anticipating this action.

This marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi ordered the
immediate mobilisation of troops and launched the full-scale invasion. This involved Indian forces in a massive
coordinated air, sea, and land assault. Indian Air Force started flying sorties against Pakistan from
midnight. The main Indian objective on the western front was to prevent Pakistan from entering Indian

no]

soil. There was no Indian intention of conducting any major offensive into West Pakistan.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

135

Naval hostilities

Naval reconnaissance submarine operations were
started by the Pakistan Navy on both eastern and
western front. In the western theatre of the war, the
Indian Navy, under the command of Vice Admiral S.N.
Kohli, successfully attacked Karachi's port in Operation

F121 T121

Trident on the night of 4—5 December, using
missile boats, sinking Pakistani destroyer PNS Khyber
and a minesweeper PNS Muhafiz; PNS Shah Jahan was

ri2i

badly damaged. 720 Pakistani sailors were killed or
wounded, and Pakistan lost reserve fuel and many
commercial ships, thus crippling the Pakistan Navy's
further involvement in the conflict. Operation Trident

ri2i

was followed by Operation Python on the night of
8—9 December, in which Indian missile boats
attacked the Karachi port, resulting in further destruction of reserve fuel tanks and the sinking of three Pakistani

Pakistan's PNS Ghazi sank off the fairway buoy of Visakhapatnam

near the eastern coast of India, making it the first submarine casualty

in the waters around the Indian subcontinent.

merchant ships

[12]

In the eastern theatre of the war, the Indian Eastern Naval Command, under Vice Admiral Krishnan, completely
isolated East Pakistan by a naval blockade in the Bay of Bengal, trapping the Eastern Pakistani Navy and eight
foreign merchant ships in their ports. From 4 December onwards, the aircraft carrier INS Vikrant was deployed, and
its Sea Hawk fighter-bombers attacked many coastal towns in East Pakistan including Chittagong and Cox's

Bazaar. Pakistan countered the threat by sending the submarine PNS Ghazi, which sank en route under mysterious

r^7ir^Ri r^Qi

circumstances off Vishakapatnam's coast reducing Pakistan's control of Bangladeshi coastline. But on 9

December, the Indian Navy suffered its biggest wartime loss when the Pakistani submarine PNS Hangor sank the

frigate INS Khukri in the Arabian Sea resulting in a loss of 18 officers and 176 sailors

[40]

The damage inflicted on the Pakistani Navy stood at 7 gunboats, 1 minesweeper, 1 submarine, 2 destroyers, 3 patrol
crafts belonging to the coast guard, 18 cargo, supply and communication vessels, and large scale damage inflicted on
the naval base and docks in the coastal town of Karachi. Three merchant navy ships — Anwar Baksh, Pasni and

[41] [421

Madhumathi — and ten smaller vessels were captured. Around 1900 personnel were lost, while 1413
servicemen were captured by Indian forces in Dhaka. According to one Pakistan scholar, Tariq Ali, the Pakistan

[44]

Navy lost a third of its force in the war.

Air operations

After the initial preemptive strike, PAF adopted a defensive stance in response to the Indian retaliation. As the war

[45]

progressed, the Indian Air Force continued to battle the PAF over conflict zones, but the number of sorties flown
by the PAF gradually decreased day-by-day. The Indian Air Force flew 4,000 sorties while its counterpart, the

[121

PAF offered little in retaliation, partly because of the paucity of non-Bengali technical personnel. This lack of
retaliation has also been attributed to the deliberate decision of the PAF High Command to cut its losses as it had

[47]

already incurred huge losses in the conflict. Though PAF did not intervene during the Indian Navy's raid on
Pakistani naval port city of Karachi, it retaliated with bombing the Okha harbour destroying the fuel tanks used by
the boats that attacked. [48][49][50]

In the east, the small air contingent of Pakistan Air Force No. 14 Sqn was destroyed, putting the Dhaka airfield out

[121

of commission and resulting in Indian air superiority in the east.
Attacks on Pakistan

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 136

While India's grip on what had been East Pakistan tightened, the IAF continued to press home attacks against
Pakistan itself. The campaign settled down to series of daylight anti-airfield, anti-radar and close-support attacks by
fighters, with night attacks against airfields and strategic targets by B-57s and C-130 (Pakistan), and Canberras and
An- 12s (India). The PAF's F-6s were employed mainly on defensive combat air patrols over their own bases, but
without air superiority the PAF was unable to conduct effective offensive operations, and its attacks were largely
ineffective. During the IAF's airfield attacks one US and one UN aircraft were damaged in Dacca, while a Canadian
Air Force Caribou was destroyed at Islamabad, along with US military liaison chief Brigadier General Chuck
Yeager's USAF Beech U-8 light twin.

Sporadic raids by the IAF continued against Pakistan's forward air bases in the West until the end of the war, and
large scale interdiction and close-support operations, and were maintained. The PAF played a more limited part in
the operations, and were reinforced by F-104s from Jordan, Mirages from an unidentified Middle Eastern ally
(probably Libya) and by F-86s from Saudi Arabia. Their arrival helped camouflage the extent of Pakistan's losses.
Libyan F-5s were reportedly deployed to Sargodha, perhaps as a potential training unit to prepare Pakistani pilots for
an influx of more F-5s from Saudi Arabia.

Hostilities officially ended at 14:30 GMT on 17 December, after the fall of Dacca on 15 December. India claimed
large gains of territory in West Pakistan (although pre-war boundaries were recognised after the war), though the
independence of Pakistan's East wing as Bangladesh was confirmed. India flew 1,978 sorties in the East and about
4,000 in the West, while PAF flew about 30 and 2,840. More than 80 percent of the IAF's sorties were close-support
and interdiction, and about 65 IAF aircraft were lost (54 losses were admitted), perhaps as many as 27 of them in air
combat. Pakistan lost 72 aircraft (51 of them combat types, but admitting only 25 to enemy action). At least 16 of the
Pakistani losses, and 24 fell in air combat (although only 10 air combat losses were admitted, not including any F-6s,
Mirage Ills, or the six Jordanian F-104s which failed to return to their donors). But the imbalance in air losses was
explained by the IAF's considerably higher sortie rate, and its emphasis on ground-attack missions. On the ground
Pakistan suffered most, with 8,000 killed and 25,000 wounded while India lost 3,000 dead and 12,000 wounded. The
losses of armoured vehicles were similarly imbalanced. This represented a major defeat for Pakistan.

Ground operations

Pakistan attacked at several places along India's western border with Pakistan, but the Indian army successfully held
their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Army's movements in the west and made some

2 r52ir531

initial gains, including capturing around 5500 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ) of Pakistan

territory (land gained by India in Pakistani Kashmir, Pakistani Punjab and Sindh sectors was later ceded in the Simla
Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill).

On the eastern front, the Indian Army joined forces with the Mukti Bahini to form the Mitro Bahini ("Allied
Forces"); Unlike the 1965 war which had emphasised set-piece battles and slow advances, this time the strategy
adopted was a swift, three-pronged assault of nine infantry divisions with attached armoured units and close air
support that rapidly converged on Dhaka, the capital of East Pakistan.

Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, who commanded the eighth, twenty-third, and fifty-seventh divisions, led
the Indian thrust into East Pakistan. As these forces attacked Pakistani formations, the Indian Air Force rapidly
destroyed the small air contingent in East Pakistan and put the Dhaka airfield out of commission. In the meantime,
the Indian Navy effectively blockaded East Pakistan.

The Indian campaign employed "blitzkrieg" techniques, exploiting weakness in the enemy's positions and bypassing

T541
opposition, and resulted in a swift victory. Faced with insurmountable losses, the Pakistani military capitulated in

less than a fortnight. On 16 December, the Pakistani forces stationed in East Pakistan surrendered.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

137

Surrender of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan

The Instrument of Surrender of Pakistani forces stationed in East Pakistan was signed at Ramna Race Course in
Dhaka at 16.31 1ST on 16 December 1971, by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer
Commanding-in-chief of Eastern Command of the Indian Army and Lieutenant General A. A. K. Niazi, Commander
of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan. As Aurora accepted the surrender, the surrounding crowds on the race course
began shouting anti-Niazi and anti-Pakistan slogans.

India took approximately 90,000 prisoners of war, including Pakistani soldiers and their East Pakistani civilian
supporters. 79,676 prisoners were uniformed personnel, of which 55,692 were Army, 16,354 Paramilitary, 5,296
Police, 1000 Navy and 800 PAF. The remaining prisoners were civilians — either family members of the military
personnel or collaborators (razakars). The Hamoodur Rahman Commission report instituted by Pakistan lists the
Pakistani POWs as follows: Apart from soldiers, it was estimated that 15,000 Bengali civilians were also made

prisoners of war.

[571

Branch

Number of captured Pakistani POWs

Army

54,154

Navy

1,381

Air Force

833

Paramilitary including police

22,000

Civilian personnel

12,000

Total:

90,368

Foreign involvement

United States and Soviet Union

$?A

POL I VHK- U i>

Department of State TElCftDAIUI

The Soviet Union sympathised with the Bangladeshis, and supported
the Indian Army and Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising that the
independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its
rivals — the United States and China. The USSR gave assurances to
India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed,
it would take counter-measures. This assurance was enshrined in the

Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971

[58]

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The United States supported Pakistan both politically and materially.

President Richard Nixon and his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger

[591
feared Soviet expansion into South and Southeast Asia. Pakistan

was a close ally of the People's Republic of China, with whom Nixon

had been negotiating a rapprochement and where he intended to visit

in February 1972. Nixon feared that an Indian invasion of West

Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination of the region, and that it

would seriously undermine the global position of the United States and

the regional position of America's new tacit ally, China. In order to

demonstrate to China the bona fides of the United States as an ally, Nixon sent military supplies to Pakistan, routing

them through Jordan and Iran, while also encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon

administration also ignored reports it received of the "genocidal" activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan,
most notably the Blood telegram. This prompted widespread criticism and condemnation both by Congress and in

The Blood Telegram

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 138

the international press.

Then-US ambassador to the United Nations George H.W. Bush — later 41st President of the United
States — introduced a resolution in the UN Security Council calling for a cease-fire and the withdrawal of armed
forces by India and Pakistan. It was vetoed by the Soviet Union. The following days witnessed a great pressure on
the Soviets from the Nixon-Kissinger duo to get India to withdraw, but to no avail.

It has been documented that President Nixon requested Iran and Jordan to send their F-86, F-104 and F-5 fighter jets
in aid of Pakistan.

When Pakistan's defeat in the eastern sector seemed certain, Nixon deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft
carrier USS Enterprise into the Bay of Bengal. The Enterprise and its escort ships arrived on station on 1 1 December
1971. According to a Russian documentary, the United Kingdom deployed a carrier battle group led by the aircraft
carrier HMS Eagle to the Bay, although this is unlikely as the Eagle was decommissioned at Portsmouth,

England in January 1972.

On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two groups of cruisers and destroyers and a submarine armed
with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 into the Indian Ocean from 18 December
1971 until 7 January 1972. The Soviets also had a nuclear submarine to help ward off the threat posed by USS
Enterprise task force in the Indian Ocean.

China

As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in
East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just
such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with
India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962
Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed
eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its
weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.

When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because
two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been
implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognise independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so
until 31 August 1975. [71][69]

Aftermath
India

The war stripped Pakistan of more than half of its population and with nearly one-third of its army in captivity,

ri9i

clearly established India's military dominance of the subcontinent. In spite of the magnitude of the victory, India
was surprisingly restrained in its reaction. Mostly, Indian leaders seemed pleased by the relative ease with which
they had accomplished their goals — the establishment of Bangladesh and the prospect of an early return to their
homeland of the 10 million Bengali refugees who were the cause of the war. In announcing the Pakistani
surrender, Prime Minister Indira Gandhi declared in the Indian Parliament:

"Dacca is now the free capital of a free country. We hail the people of Bangladesh in their hour of
triumph. All nations who value the human spirit will recognize it as a significant milestone in man's
quest for liberty."

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

139

Pakistan

A Pakistan stamp depicting the 90,000 POWs in
Indian camps. This stamp was issued by Pakistan
with the political aim of raising global support to

help secure their release. The POWs were

released by India after the signing and ratification

of the Simla Agreement.

T191

For Pakistan it was a complete and humiliating defeat, a
psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of intense
rival India. Pakistan lost half its population and a significant portion
of its economy and suffered setbacks to its geo-political role in South
Asia. Pakistan feared that the two-nation theory was disproved

and that the Islamic ideology had proved insufficient to keep Bengalis
part of Pakistan. Also, the Pakistani military suffered further
humiliation by having their 90,000 prisoners of war (POWs) released
by India only after the negotiation and signing of the Simla Agreement
on 2 July 1972. In addition to repatriation of prisoners of war also, the
agreement established an ongoing structure for the negotiated
resolution of future conflicts between India and Pakistan (referring to
the remaining western provinces that now composed the totality of
Pakistan). In signing the agreement, Pakistan also, by implication,
recognised the former East Pakistan as the now independent and sovereign state of Bangladesh.

The Pakistani people were not mentally prepared to accept defeat, as the state-controlled media in West Pakistan had
been projecting imaginary victories. When the surrender in East Pakistan was finally announced, people could not
come terms with the magnitude of defeat, spontaneous demonstrations and mass protests erupted on the streets of
major cities in West Pakistan. Also, referring to the remaining rump Western Pakistan as simply "Pakistan" added to
the effect of the defeat as international acceptance of the secession of the eastern half of the country and its creation
as the independent state of Bangladesh developed and was given more credence. The cost of the war for Pakistan
in monetary and human resources was very high. Demoralized and finding himself unable to control the situation,
General Yahya Khan surrendered power to Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto who was sworn-in on 20 December 1971 as President
and as the (first civilian) Chief Martial Law Administrator. A new and smaller western-based Pakistan emerged on
16 December 1 97 1. [72]

The loss of East Pakistan shattered the prestige of the Pakistani military. Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its

T731
air force and a third of its army. The war also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine

T741
that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West Pakistan". Hussain Haqqani, in his book Pakistan: Between

Mosque and Military notes,

"Moreover, the army had failed to fulfill its promises of fighting to the last man. The eastern command had

laid down arms after losing only 1,300 men in battle. In West Pakistan 1,200 military deaths had accompanied

T751
lackluster military performance."

In his book The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative Pakistani Major General Hakeem Arshad Qureshi a
veteran of this conflict noted,

"We must accept the fact that, as a people, we had also contributed to the bifurcation of our own
country. It was not a Niazi, or a Yahya, even a Mujib, or a Bhutto, or their key assistants, who alone
were the cause of our break-up, but a corrupted system and a flawed social order that our own apathy
had allowed to remain in place for years. At the most critical moment in our history we failed to check
the limitless ambitions of individuals with dubious antecedents and to thwart their selfish and
irresponsible behaviour. It was our collective conduct' that had provided the enemy an opportunity to

dismember us

.,[76]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 140

Bangladesh

Bangladesh became an independent nation, the world's third most populous Muslim state. Mujibur Rahman was
released from a West Pakistani prison, returned to Dhaka on 10 January 1972 and to become first President of
Bangladesh and later its Prime Minister.

On the brink of defeat around 14 December, the Pakistani Army, and its local collaborators, systematically killed a

T77ir7Rl

large number of Bengali doctors, teachers and intellectuals, part of a pogrom against the Hindu minorities who

constituted the majority of urban educated intellectuals. Young men, especially students, who were seen as

possible rebels were also targeted. The extent of casualties in East Pakistan is not known. R.J. Rummel cites
estimates ranging from one to three million people killed. Other estimates place the death toll lower, at 300,000.
Bangladesh government figures state that Pakistani forces aided by collaborators killed three million people, raped

roil

200,000 women and displaced millions of others. In 2010 Bangladesh government set up a tribunal to prosecute

rs2i
the people involved in alleged war crimes and those who collaborated with Pakistan. According to the

Government, the defendants would be charged with Crimes against humanity, genocide, murder, rape and arson.

Hamoodur Rahman Commission

In aftermath of war Pakistan Government constituted the Hamoodur Rahman Commission headed by Justice
Hamoodur Rahman in 1971 to investigate the political and military causes for defeat and the Bangladesh atrocities
during the war. The commission's report was classified and its publication banned by Bhutto as it put the military in
poor light, until some parts of the report surfaced in Indian media in 2000.

When it was declassified, it showed many failings from the strategic to the tactical levels. It confirmed the looting,

rapes and the killings by the Pakistan Army and their local agents. It lay the blame squarely on Pakistani generals,

rs7i
accusing them of debauchery, smuggling, war crimes and neglect of duty. Though no actions were ever taken on

commissions findings, the commission had recommended public trial of Pakistan Army generals on the charges

reel

that they had been responsible for the situation in the first place and that they had succumbed without a fight.

Simla Agreement

In 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India and Pakistan, the treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the

independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return of the Pakistani POWs. India treated all the POWs in strict

[291
accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It released more than 90,000 Pakistani PoWs in five

months. Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were

also pardoned by India.

The accord also gave back more than 13,000 km 2 of land that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the
war, though India retained a few strategic areas. But some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to
Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency, arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord
was perceived as being overly harsh by Pakistanis and that he would be accused of losing Kashmir in addition to the
loss of East Pakistan.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 141

Long term consequences

• Steve Coll, in his book Ghost Wars, argues that the Pakistan military's experience with India, including Pervez
Musharraf s experience in 1971, influenced the Pakistani government to support jihadist groups in Afghanistan
even after the Soviets left, because the jihadists were a tool to use against India, including bogging down the
Indian Army in Kashmir.

• After the war, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came to power. Pakistan launched Project-706, a secret nuclear weapon
development program, to defend itself from India. A vast majority of Pakistani nuclear scientists who were
working at the International Atomic Energy Agency and European and American nuclear programs immediately
came to Pakistan and joined Project-706.

• Writing about the war in Foreign Affairs magazine Zulfikar Ali Bhutto stated 'There is no parallel in

contemporary history to the cataclysm which engulfed Pakistan in 1971. A tragic civil war, which rent asunder

the people of the two parts of Pakistan, was seized by India as an opportunity for armed intervention. The country

[93]
was dismembered, its economy shattered and the nation's self-confidence totally undermined. This statement

of Bhutto has given rise to the myth of betrayal prevalent in modern Pakistan. This view was contradicted by the

post-War Hamoodur Rahman Commission, ordered by Bhutto himself, which in its 1974 report indicted generals

of the Pakistan Army for creating conditions which led to the eventual loss of East Pakistan and for inept handling

of military operations in the East.

Important dates

• 7 March 1971: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declares that, "The current struggle is a struggle for independence", in a
public meeting attended by almost a million people in Dhaka.

• 25 March 1971: Pakistani forces start Operation Searchlight, a systematic plan to eliminate any resistance.
Thousands of people are killed in student dormitories and police barracks in Dhaka.

• 26 March 1971: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration of independence and sent it through a
radio message on the night of 25 March (the morning of 26 March). Later Major Ziaur Rahman and other Awami
League leaders announced the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujib from Kalurghat Radio
Station, Chittagong. The message is relayed to the world by Indian radio stations.

• 27 March 1971: Bangladesh Force namely Mukti Bahini {consisting Niyomito Bahini (Regular Force) and Gono
Bahini (Guerilla Force)} was formed under the Commander-in-Chief (C-in-C) General Mohammad Ataul Ghani
Osmany.

• 17 April 1971: Exiled leaders of Awami League form a provisional government.

• 3 December 1971: War between India and Pakistan officially begins when West Pakistan launches a series of
preemptive air strikes on Indian airfields.

• 6 December 1971: East Pakistan is recognised as Bangladesh by India.

• 14 December 1971: Systematic elimination of Bengali intellectuals is started by Pakistani Army and local
collaborators.

• 16 December 1971: Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi, supreme commander of Pakistani Army in East Pakistan,
surrenders to the Allied Forces (Mitro Bahini) represented by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Arora of Indian
Army at the surrender. India and Bangladesh gain victory.

• 12 January 1972: Sheikh Mujibur Rahman comes to power.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

142

Military awards

Battle honours

After the war, a total of number of 41 battle honours and 4 theatre honours were awarded to units of the Indian

[941
Army, the notable amongst which are:

East Pakistan 1971 (theatre honour) • Chhamb

Sindh 1971 (theatre honour) • Defence of Punch

Jammu and Kashmir 1971 (theatre honour) • Dera Baba Nanak

Punjab 1971 (theatre honour) • GadraCity

Basantar River • Harar Kalan

Bogra • Hilli

Chachro

Longanewala

Parbat Ali

Poongli Bridge

Shehjra

Shingo River Valley

Sylhet

Gallantry awards

For bravery, a number of soldiers and officers on both sides were awarded the highest gallantry award of their
respective countries. Following is a list of the recipients of the Indian award Param Vir Chakra, Bangladeshi award
Bir Sreshtho and the Pakistani award Nishan-E-Haider:

India

Recipients of the Param Vir Chakra:

• Lance Naik Albert Ekka (Posthumously)

• Flying Officer Nirmal Jit Singh Sekhon (Posthumously)

• Major Hoshiar Singh

• Second Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal (Posthumously)

Bangladesh

Recipients of the Bir Sreshtho:

Captain Mohiuddin Jahangir (Posthumously)

Lance Naik Munshi Abdur Rouf (Posthumously)

Sepoy Hamidur Rahman (Posthumously)

Sepoy Mostafa Kamal (Posthumously)

ERA Mohammad Ruhul Amin (Posthumously)

Flight Lieutenant Matiur Rahman (Posthumously)

Lance Naik Nur Mohammad Sheikh (Posthumously)

Pakistan

Recipients of the Nishan-E-Haider:

• Major Muhammad Akram (Posthumously)

• Pilot Officer Rashid Minhas (Posthumously)

• Major Shabbir Sharif (Posthumously)

• Sarwar Muhammad Hussain (Posthumously)

• Lance Naik Muhammad Mahfuz (Posthumously)

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 143

Civilian Awards

On 25 July 2011, Bangladesh Freedom Honour was posthumously conferred on former Indian prime minister
Indira Gandhi. President of Bangladesh Zillur Rahman and the Prime Minister Sheikh Hasina conferred Bangladesh
Liberation War Honour and Friends of Liberation War Honour to 75 individuals, six organisations, Mitra
Bahini and the people of India at a special ceremony on 28 March 2012 at the Bangabandhu International
Conference Centre. This included eight heads of states viz. former Nepalese President Ram Baran Yadav, the third
King of Bhutan Jigme Dorji Wangchuck, former Soviet presidents Leonid Ilyich Brezhnev and Nikolai Viktorovich
Podgorny, ex-Soviet prime minister Alexei Nikolaevich Kosygin, former Yugoslav president Marshal Josip Broz
Tito, ex-UK prime minister Sir Edward Richard George Heath and former Nepalese prime minister Bishweshwar
Prasad Koirala. The organisations include the BBC, Akashbani (All India Radio), International Committee of the
Red Cross, United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, Oxfam and Kolkata University Shahayak Samiti. The
list of foreign friends of Bangladesh include 257 Indians, 88 Americans, 41 Pakistanis, 39 Britons, nine Russians, 18
Nepalese, 16 French and 18 Japanese.

Dramatization

Films (Indian)

• Border, a 1997 Bollywood war film directed by J.P.Dutta. This movie is an adaptation from real life events that

happened at the Battle of Longewala fought in Rajasthan (Western Theatre) during the 1971 Indo-Pak war.

[99]
Border at the Internet Movie Database

• Hindustan Ki Kasam, a 1973 Bollywood war film directed by Chetan Anand. The aircraft in the film are all
authentic aircraft used in the 1971 war against Pakistan. These include MiG-21s, Gnats, Hunters and Su-7s. Some
of these aircraft were also flown by war veterans such as Samar Bikram Shah (2 kills) and Manbir Singh.
Hindustan Ki Kasam at the Internet Movie Database

• Aakraman, 1975 Bollywood film set during this war featuring a romantic Love triangle.

• 1971 - Prisoners of War, a 2007 Bollywood war film directed by Sagar Brothers. Set against the backdrop of a
prisoners' camp in Pakistan, follows six Indian prisoners awaiting release after their capture in the 1971
India-Pakistan war.

Miniseries/Dramas (Pakistani)

• PNS Ghazi (Shaheed), an Urdu drama based on sinking of PNS Ghazi, ISPR

References

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information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal (East Pakistan). Hardest hit have been

members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places, painted

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outside Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. These victims were among

an estimated 300 Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters."
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Further reading

Haqqani, Hussain (2005). Pakistan: Between Mosque and Military (http://books.google.com/

?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&lpg=PPl&pg=PPl#v=onepage&q=). United Book Press. ISBN 978-0-87003-214-1.

Ayub, Muhammad (2005). An army, its role and rule: a history of the Pakistan Army from Independence to

Kargil, 1967-1999 (http://books.google.com/?id=B2saAAAACAAJ). RoseDog Books. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3,

9780805995947.

Palit, D K (1972). The Lightning Campaign: The Indo-Pakistan War 1971 (http://books.google.com/

?id=rPmTAAAACAAJ). Compton Press Ltd. ISBN 978-0-900193-10-1.

Saigal, J R (2000). Pakistan Splits: The Birth of Bangladesh (http://books.google.com/?id=gUfaAAAACAAJ).

Manas Publications. ISBN 81-7049-124-X, 9788170491248.

Hanhimaki, Jussi M. (2004). The Flawed Architect: Henry Kissinger and American Foreign Policy (http://books.

google. com/?id=3wolOABSg_YC&lpg=PPl&pg=PPl#v=onepage&q=). Oxford University Press.

ISBN 0-19-517221-3, 978-0-19-517221-8.

Niazi, General A. A. K. (1999). Betrayal of East Pakistan (http://books. google. com/?id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&

lpg=PPl&pg=PPl#v=onepage&q=). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-579275-0, 9780195792751.

Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O GENERAL MY GENERAL (Life and Works of General MA G

Osmany). The Osmany Memorial Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.

Cilano, Cara, ed. (2010). Pakistaniaat: Special issue on 1971 War.

External links

Video of General Niazi Surrendering (http://www.youtube. com/watch ?v=Q8M052QQ6_o)

A complete coverage of the war from the Indian perspective (http://www.freeindia.org/1971war/)

An Atlas of the 1971 India — Pakistan War: The Creation of Bangladesh by John H. Gill (http://www.ndu.edu/

nesa/docs/Gill atlas final version.pdf)

Actual conversation from the then US President Nixon and Henry Kissinger during the 1971 War (http://www.

state. gov/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/xi/) — US Department of State's Official archive.

Indian Army: Major Operations (http://indianarmy.nic.in/armajop.htm)

Pakistan: Partition and Military Succession USA Archives (http://www.icdc.com/~paulwolf/pakistan/

pakistan.htm)

Pakistan intensifies airraid on India BBC (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/

newsid_2519000/2519133.stm)

A day by day account of the war as seen in a virtual newspaper, (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/1971/)

The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971. (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/

NSAEBB79/)

16 December 1971: any lessons learned? By Ayaz Amir (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/20051216.

htm) — Pakistan's Dawn (newspaper)

India-Pakistan 1971 War as covered by TIME (http://www.vidyasoft.com/interest/war/war71.html)

Indian Air Force Combat Kills in the 1971 war (unofficial), Centre for Indian Military History (http://www.

orbat.com/site/cimh/iaf/IAF_1971_kills_revl.pdf)

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 148

• Op Cactus Lilly: 19 Infantry Division in 1971, a personal recall by Lt Col Balwant Singh Sahore (http://
frontierindia.net/op-cactus-lilly-19-infantry-division-in-1971/)

• All for a bottle of Scotch, a personal recall of Major (later Major General) C K Karumbaya, SM, the battle for
Magura (http://frontierindia.net/all-for-a-bottle-of-scotch/)

• TIME Magazine article from 20 December 1971 describing the War (http://www.time.com/time/printout/
0,8816,878969,00.html)

• TIME Magazine article from 20 December 1971 critical of the US policy during this war (http://www.time.
com/time/printout/0,8816,878970,00.html)

• "The Rediff Interview/Lt Gen A A Khan Niazi" (http://www.rediff.com/. ./news/2004/feb/02interl .htm).
Rediff. 2 February 2004.

149

Background

Bangladesh Liberation War

The Bangladesh Liberation War (Bengali: *J^5'l<!\f Muktijuddho) was an armed conflict over a duration of
about 9 months, putting East Pakistan and India against the State of Pakistan. The war started on 26 March 1971
between the State of Pakistan and East Pakistan, India intervened on 3 December 1971. Armed conflict ended on 16
December 1971 and resulted in the secession of East Pakistan, which became the independent nation of Bangladesh.

The war broke out when army units directed by the State of Pakistan (then controlled by West Pakistan) launched a
military operation called Operation Searchlight in East Pakistan against Bengali civilians, students, intelligentsia,
and armed personnel who were demanding for the military regime to honor the results of the first ever 1970
democratic elections in Pakistan won by an East Pakistan party or to allow separation of the East from West
Pakistan. Bengali military, paramilitary, and civilians formed the Mukti Bahini (Bengali: SRSv^T <RMl "Liberation
Army") on March 26, 1971, in response to Operation Searchlight and used guerrilla warfare tactics to fight against
the West Pakistan army. India provided economic, military and diplomatic support to the Mukti Bahini rebels,
leading West Pakistan to launch Operation Chengiz Khan, a pre-emptive attack on the western border of India which
started the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

On 16 December 1971, the allied forces of the Indian army and the Mukti Bahini defeated the West Pakistani forces
deployed in the East. The resulting surrender was the largest in number of prisoners of war since World War II.

Background

In August 1947, the Partition of British India gave rise to two new states; the Dominion of India and the Dominion
of Pakistan, the latter intended to be a homeland for the Muslims of the Indian sub-continent. The Dominion of
Pakistan comprised two geographically and culturally separate areas to the east and the west of India. The western
zone was popularly (and for a period of time, also officially) termed West Pakistan and the eastern zone (modern-day
Bangladesh) was initially termed East Bengal and later, East Pakistan. Although the population of the two zones was
close to equal, political power was concentrated in West Pakistan and it was widely perceived that East Pakistan was
being exploited economically, leading to many grievances. Administration of two discontinuous territories was also
seen as a challenge.

On 25 March 1971, rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan was met by brutal
suppressive force from the ruling elite of the West Pakistan establishment, in what came to be termed Operation
Searchlight. [6]

The violent crackdown by West Pakistan forces led to Awami League leader Sheikh Mujibur Rahman declaring

ro]

East Pakistan's independence as the state of Bangladesh on 26 March 1971. Pakistani President Agha Mohammed

ro]

Yahya ordered the Pakistani military to restore the Pakistani government's authority, beginning the civil war. The

war led to a sea of refugees (estimated at the time to be about 10 million) flooding into the eastern provinces of

India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and econom
Bangladeshi resistance army known as the Mukti Bahini.

India. Facing a mounting humanitarian and economic crisis, India started actively aiding and organising the

Bangladesh Liberation War 150

Language controversy

In 1948, Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Pakistan's first Governor-General, declared in Dhaka (then usually spelled Dacca in
English) that "Urdu, and only Urdu" would be the common language for all of Pakistan. This proved highly
controversial, since Urdu was a language that was only spoken in the West by Muhajirs and in the East by Biharis,
although the Urdu language had been promoted as the lingua franca of Indian Muslims by political and religious
leaders such as Sir Khwaja Salimullah, Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, Nawab Viqar-ul-Mulk and Maulvi Abdul Haq. The
language was considered a vital element of the Islamic culture for Indian Muslims; Hindi and the Devanagari script
were seen as fundamentals of Hindu culture. The majority groups in the western provinces of the Dominion of

Pakistan (merged in 1956 as West Pakistan) spoke Punjabi, while the Bengali language was spoken by the vast

ri2i
majority of East Bengalis (from 1956, East Pakistan). The language controversy eventually reached a point where

East Bengal revolted while the other part of Pakistan remained calm even though Punjabi was spoken by the

majority of the population of the western provinces. Several students and civilians lost their lives in a police

crackdown on 21 February 1952. The day is revered in Bangladesh and in West Bengal as the Language Martyrs'

Day. Later, in memory of the 1952 deaths, UNESCO declared 21 February as the International Mother Language

Day in 1999. [13]

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In the western provinces, the movement was seen as a sectional uprising against Pakistani national interests and
the founding ideology of Pakistan, the Two-Nation Theory. West Pakistani politicians considered Urdu a product
of Indian Islamic culture, as Ayub Khan said, as late as 1967, "East Pakistanis... still are under considerable
Hindu culture and influence." However, the deaths led to bitter feelings among East Bengalis, and they were a
major factor in the push for independence in 197 1 .

Disparities

Although East Pakistan had a larger population, West Pakistan dominated the divided country politically and
received more money from the common budget.

Year

Spending on West Pakistan (in millions of
Pakistani rupees)

Spending on East Pakistan (in millions of
Pakistani rupees)

Amount spent on East as
percentage of West

1950-55

11,290

5,240

46.4

1955-60

16,550

5,240

31.7

1960-65

33,550

14,040

41.8

1965-70

51,950

21,410

41.2

Total

113,340

45,930

40.5

Source: Reports of the Advisor}' Panels for the Fourth Five Year Plan 1970—75, Vol. I, published by the planning

commission of Pakistan.

Bengalis were underrepresented in the Pakistan military. Officers of Bengali origin in the different wings of the
armed forces made up just 5% of overall force by 1965; of these, only a few were in command positions, with the

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majority in technical or administrative posts. West Pakistanis believed that Bengalis were not "martially inclined"

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unlike Pashtuns and Punjabis; the "martial races" notion was dismissed as ridiculous and humiliating by Bengalis.
Moreover, despite huge defence spending, East Pakistan received none of the benefits, such as contracts, purchasing
and military support jobs. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 over Kashmir also highlighted the sense of military
insecurity among Bengalis, as only an under-strength infantry division and 15 combat aircraft without tank support
were in East Pakistan to thwart any Indian retaliations during the conflict.

Bangladesh Liberation War 151

Political differences

Although East Pakistan accounted for a slight majority of the country's population, political power remained in
the hands of West Pakistanis. Since a straightforward system of representation based on population would have
concentrated political power in East Pakistan, the West Pakistani establishment came up with the "One Unit"
scheme, where all of West Pakistan was considered one province. This was solely to counterbalance the East wing's
votes.

After the assassination of Liaquat Ali Khan, Pakistan's first prime minister, in 1951, political power began to devolve
to the President of Pakistan, and eventually, the military. The nominal elected chief executive, the Prime Minister,
was frequently sacked by the establishment, acting through the President.

The East Pakistanis observed that the West Pakistani establishment would swiftly depose any East Pakistanis elected
Prime Minister of Pakistan, such as Khawaja Nazimuddin, Muhammad Ali Bogra, or Huseyn Shaheed Suhrawardy.
Their suspicions were further influenced by the military dictatorships of Ayub Khan (27 October 1958 — 25 March
1969) and Yahya Khan (25 March 1969 — 20 December 1971), both West Pakistanis. The situation reached a climax
in 1970, when the Awami League, the largest East Pakistani political party, led by Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, won a
landslide victory in the national elections. The party won 167 of the 169 seats allotted to East Pakistan, and thus a
majority of the 313 seats in the National Assembly. This gave the Awami League the constitutional right to form a
government. However, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto (a Sindhi and former professor), the leader of the Pakistan Peoples Party,
refused to allow Rahman to become the Prime Minister of Pakistan. Instead, he proposed the idea of having two
Prime Ministers, one for each wing. The proposal elicited outrage in the east wing, already chafing under the other
constitutional innovation, the "one unit scheme". Bhutto also refused to accept Rahman's Six Points. On 3 March
1971, the two leaders of the two wings along with the President General Yahya Khan met in Dhaka to decide the fate

of the country. After their discussions yielded no satisfactory results, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called for a

T211
nationwide strike. Bhutto feared a civil war, therefore, he sent his trusted companion, Dr. Mubashir Hassan. A

T211
message was convened and Mujib decided to meet Bhutto. Upon his arrival, Mujib met with Bhutto and both

r2ii
agreed to form a coalition government with Mujib as Premier and Bhutto as President. However, the military was

T211
unaware of these developments, and Bhutto increased his pressure on Mujib to reached a decision.

On 7 March 1971, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman (soon to be the prime minister) delivered a speech at the Racecourse
Ground (now called the Suhrawardy Udyan). In this speech he mentioned a further four-point condition to consider
at the National Assembly Meeting on 25 March:

• The immediate lifting of martial law.

• Immediate withdrawal of all military personnel to their barracks.

• An inquiry into the loss of life.

• Immediate transfer of power to the elected representative of the people before the assembly meeting 25 March.

He urged his people to turn every house into a fort of resistance. He closed his speech saying, "Our struggle is for
our freedom. Our struggle is for our independence." This speech is considered the main event that inspired the nation
to fight for its independence. General Tikka Khan was flown in to Dhaka to become Governor of East Bengal.
East-Pakistani judges, including Justice Siddique, refused to swear him in.

Between 10 and 13 March, Pakistan International Airlines cancelled all their international routes to urgently fly
"government passengers" to Dhaka. These "government passengers" were almost all Pakistani soldiers in civilian
dress. MV Swat, a ship of the Pakistan Navy carrying ammunition and soldiers, was harboured in Chittagong Port,
but the Bengali workers and sailors at the port refused to unload the ship. A unit of East Pakistan Rifles refused to
obey commands to fire on the Bengali demonstrators, beginning a mutiny among the Bengali soldiers.

Bangladesh Liberation War 152

Response to the 1970 cyclone

The 1970 Bhola cyclone made landfall on the East Pakistan coastline during the evening of 12 November, around the

T221
same time as a local high tide, killing an estimated 300,000 to 500,000 people. Though the exact death toll is not

known, it is considered the deadliest tropical cyclone on record. A week after the landfall, President Khan

conceded that his government had made "slips" and "mistakes" in its handling of the relief efforts due to a lack of

understanding of the magnitude of the disaster.

A statement released by eleven political leaders in East Pakistan ten days after the cyclone hit charged the
government with "gross neglect, callous and utter indifference". They also accused the president of playing down the
magnitude of the problem in news coverage. On 19 November, students held a march in Dhaka protesting the
slowness of the government's response. Maulana Abdul Hamid Khan Bhashani addressed a rally of 50,000 people
on 24 November, where he accused the president of inefficiency and demanded his resignation.

As the conflict between East and West Pakistan developed in March, the Dhaka offices of the two government
organisations directly involved in relief efforts were closed for at least two weeks, first by a general strike and then
by a ban on government work in East Pakistan by the Awami League. With this increase in tension, foreign
personnel were evacuated over fears of violence. Relief work continued in the field, but long-term planning was
curtailed. This conflict widened into the Bangladesh Liberation War in December and concluded with the

T281

creation of Bangladesh. This is one of the first times that a natural event helped to trigger a civil war.

Operation Searchlight

A planned military pacification carried out by the Pakistan Army — codenamed Operation Searchlight — started on

[291
25 March to curb the Bengali nationalist movement by taking control of the major cities on 26 March, and then

eliminating all opposition, political or military, within one month. Before the beginning of the operation, all

[31]
foreign journalists were systematically deported from East Pakistan.

The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali hands in mid-May.
The operation also began the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities. These systematic killings served only to enrage the
Bengalis, which ultimately resulted in the secession of East Pakistan later in the same year. The international media

and reference books in English have published casualty figures which vary greatly, from 5,000—35,000 in Dhaka,

T321
and 200,000—3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, and the atrocities have been referred to as acts of

genocide.

According to the Asia Times,

At a meeting of the military top brass, Yahya Khan declared: "Kill 3 million of them and the rest will eat
out of our hands." Accordingly, on the night of 25 March, the Pakistani Army launched Operation
Searchlight to "crush" Bengali resistance in which Bengali members of military services were disarmed
and killed, students and the intelligentsia systematically liquidated and able-bodied Bengali males just
picked up and gunned down.

Although the violence focused on the provincial capital, Dhaka, it also affected all parts of East Pakistan. Residential
halls of the University of Dhaka were particularly targeted. The only Hindu residential hall — the Jagannath Hall —
was destroyed by the Pakistani armed forces, and an estimated 600 to 700 of its residents were murdered. The
Pakistani army denied any cold blooded killings at the university, though the Hamood-ur-Rehman commission in
Pakistan concluded that overwhelming force was used at the university. This fact and the massacre at Jagannath Hall
and nearby student dormitories of Dhaka University are corroborated by a videotape secretly filmed by Prof. Nurul
Ullah of the East Pakistan Engineering University, whose residence was directly opposite the student dormitories.

The scale of the atrocities was first made clear in the West when Anthony Mascarenhas, a Pakistani journalist who
had been sent to the province by the military authorities to write a story favourable to Pakistan's actions, instead fled
to the United Kingdom and, on 13 June 1971, published an article in the Sunday Times describing the systematic

Bangladesh Liberation War 153

killings by the military. The BBC wrote: "There is little doubt that Mascarenhas' reportage played its part in ending
the war. It helped turn world opinion against Pakistan and encouraged India to play a decisive role", with Indian
Prime Minister Indira Gandhi herself stating that Mascarenhas' article has led her "to prepare the ground for India's
armed intervention".

Hindu areas suffered particularly heavy blows. By midnight, Dhaka was burning, especially the Hindu dominated
eastern part of the city. Time magazine reported on 2 August 1971, "The Hindus, who account for three-fourths of
the refugees and a majority of the dead, have borne the brunt of the Pakistani military hatred."

Sheikh Mujibur Rahman was arrested by the Pakistani Army. Yahya Khan appointed Brigadier (later General)
Rahimuddin Khan to preside over a special tribunal prosecuting Mujib with multiple charges. The tribunal's sentence
was never made public, but Yahya caused the verdict to be held in abeyance in any case. Other Awami League
leaders were arrested as well, while a few fled Dhaka to avoid arrest. The Awami League was banned by General
Yahya Khan.

Declaration of independence

The violence unleashed by the Pakistani forces on 25 March 1971, proved the last straw to the efforts to negotiate a
settlement. Following these outrages, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman signed an official declaration that read:

Today Bangladesh is a sovereign and independent country. On Thursday night, West Pakistani armed
forces suddenly attacked the police barracks at Razarbagh and the EPR headquarters at Pilkhana in
Dhaka. Many innocent and unarmed have been killed in Dhaka city and other places of Bangladesh.
Violent clashes between E.P.R. and Police on the one hand and the armed forces of Pakistan on the
other, are going on. The Bengalis are fighting the enemy with great courage for an independent
Bangladesh. May Allah aid us in our fight for freedom. Joy Bangla.

T411
Sheikh Mujib also called upon the people to resist the occupation forces through a radio message. Mujib was

arrested on the night of 25—26 March 1971 at about 1:30 am (as per Radio Pakistan's news on 29 March 1971).

A telegram containing the text of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration reached some students in Chittagong. The
message was translated to Bengali by Dr. Manjula Anwar. The students failed to secure permission from higher
authorities to broadcast the message from the nearby Agrabad Station of Radio Pakistan. They crossed Kalurghat
Bridge into an area controlled by an East Bengal Regiment under Major Ziaur Rahman. Bengali soldiers guarded the
station as engineers prepared for transmission. At 19:45 hrs on 27 March 1971, Major Ziaur Rahman broadcast the
announcement of the declaration of independence on behalf of Sheikh Mujibur. On 28 March Major Ziaur Rahman
made another announcement, which was as follows:

This is Shadhin Bangla Betar Kendro. I, Major Ziaur Rahman, at the direction of Bangobondhu Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman, hereby declare that the independent People's Republic of Bangladesh has been
established. At his direction, I have taken command as the temporary Head of the Republic. In the name
of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, I call upon all Bengalis to rise against the attack by the West Pakistani

Army. We shall fight to the last to free our Motherland. By the grace of Allah, victory is ours. Joy

d i [42]
Bangla.

The Kalurghat Radio Station's transmission capability was limited. The message was picked up by a Japanese ship in
Bay of Bengal. It was then re-transmitted by Radio Australia and later by the British Broadcasting Corporation.

M A Hannan, an Awami League leader from Chittagong, is said to have made the first announcement of the

T431
declaration of independence over the radio on 26 March 1971. There is controversy now as to when Major Zia

gave his speech. BNP sources maintain that it was 26 March, and there was no message regarding declaration of

independence from Mujibur Rahman. Pakistani sources, like Siddiq Salik in Witness to Surrender had written that he

heard about Mujibor Rahman's message on the Radio while Operation Searchlight was going on, and Maj. Gen.

Hakeem A. Qureshi in his book The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldier's Narrative, gives the date of Zia's speech as 27

Bangladesh Liberation War

154

March 1971. [44]

26 March 1971 is considered the official Independence Day of Bangladesh, and the name Bangladesh was in effect
henceforth. In July 1971, Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi openly referred to the former East Pakistan as
Bangladesh. Some Pakistani and Indian officials continued to use the name "East Pakistan" until 16 December
1971.

Liberation war

March to June

At first resistance was spontaneous and disorganised, and was not
expected to be prolonged. However, when the Pakistani Army
cracked down upon the population, resistance grew. The Mukti Bahini
became increasingly active. The Pakistani military sought to quell
them, but increasing numbers of Bengali soldiers defected to the
underground "Bangladesh army". These Bengali units slowly merged
into the Mukti Bahini and bolstered their weaponry with supplies from
India. Pakistan responded by airlifting in two infantry divisions and
reorganising their forces. They also raised paramilitary forces of
Razakars, Al-Badrs and Al-Shams (who were mostly members of the
Muslim League, then the government party, and other Islamist groups),
as well as other Bengalis who opposed independence, and Bihari
Muslims who had settled during the time of partition.

On 17 April 1971, a provisional government was formed in Meherpur district in western Bangladesh bordering India
with Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, who was in prison in Pakistan, as President, Syed Nazrul Islam as Acting President,
Tajuddin Ahmed as Prime Minister, and General Muhammad Ataul Ghani Osmani as Commander-in-Chief,

Bangladesh Forces. As fighting grew between the occupation army and the Bengali Mukti Bahini, an estimated 10

T471
million Bengalis, sought refuge in the Indian states of Assam and West Bengal.

Leaflets and pamphlets played an important role
in driving public opinion during the war.

Bangladesh Liberation War

155

i ®

\

Sectors of Liberation War

International Bonn da iy

Sector Boundary

50 100 km

f

v ®

^T __y

L

® ©

* ' 1 ) \

aj

© \

i

BAY OF BENGAL J ^\

The eleven sectors

June - September

Bangladesh forces command was set up on 11 July, with Col. M. A. G.
Osmani as commander-in-chief (C-in-C) with the status of Cabinet
Minister, Lt. Col., Abdur Rabb as chief of Staff (COS), Group Captain
A K Khandker as Deputy Chief of Staff (DCOS) and Major A R
Chowdhury as Assistant Chief of Staff (ACOS).

General Osmani had differences of opinion with the Indian leadership
regarding the role of the Mukti Bahini in the conflict. Indian leadership
initially envisioned Bengali forces to be trained into a small elite
guerrilla force of 8,000 members, led by the surviving East Bengal
Regiment soldiers operating in small cells around Bangladesh to
facilitate the eventual Indian intervention, but the Bangladesh
Government in exile and General Osmani favored the following

, , [49] [50]

strategy:

• Bengali conventional force would occupy lodgment areas inside
Bangladesh and then Bangladesh government would request
international diplomatic recognition and intervention. Initially
Mymensingh was picked for this operation, but Gen. Osmani later
settled on Sylhet.

• Sending the maximum number to guerrillas inside Bangladesh as soon as possible with the following

,. .. [51][52]

objectives:

• Increasing Pakistani casualties through raids and ambush.

• Cripple economic activity by hitting power stations, railway lines, storage depots and communication
networks.

• Destroy Pakistan army mobility by blowing up bridges/culverts, fuel depots, trains and river crafts.

• The strategic objective was to make the Pakistanis spread their forces inside the province, so attacks could be
made on isolated Pakistani detachments.

[531
Bangladesh was divided into eleven sectors in July, each with a commander chosen from defected officers of the

Pakistani army who joined the Mukti Bahini to conduct guerrilla operations and train fighters. Most of their training

camps were situated near the border area and were operated with assistance from India. The 10th Sector was directly

placed under the Commander in Chief (C-in-C) General M. A. G. Osmani and included the Naval Commandos and

[541
C-in-C's special force. Three brigades (11 Battalions) were raised for conventional warfare; a large guerrilla force

(estimated at 100,000) was trained. [55]

Three brigades (8 infantry battalions and 3 artillery batteries) were put into action between July - September.
During June — July, Mukti Bahini had regrouped across the border with Indian aid through Operation Jackpot and

[57]

began sending 2000 — 5000 guerrillas across the border, the so called Moonsoon Offensive, which for various
reasons (lack of proper training, supply shortage, lack of a proper support network inside Bangladesh etc.) failed to
achieve its objectives. Bengali regular forces also attacked BOPs in Mymensingh, Comilla and Sylhet, but

the results were mixed. Pakistani authorities concluded that they had successfully contained the Monsoon Offensive,
which proved a near-accurate observation.

Guerrilla operations, which slackened during the training phase, picked up after August. Economic and military
targets in Dhaka were attacked. The major success story was Operation Jackpot, in which naval commandos mined
and blew up berthed ships in Chittagong on 16 August 1971. Pakistani reprisals claimed lives of thousands of
civilians. The Indian army took over supplying the Mukti Bahini from the BSF. They organised six sectors for
supplying the Bangladesh forces.

Bangladesh Liberation War

156

October — December

Bangladesh conventional forces attacked border outposts. Kamalpur, Belonia and the Battle of Boyra are a few
examples. 90 out of 370 BOPs fell to Bengali forces. Guerrilla attacks intensified, as did Pakistani and Razakar
reprisals on civilian populations. Pakistani forces were reinforced by eight battalions from West Pakistan. The
Bangladeshi independence fighters even managed to temporarily capture airstrips at Lalmonirhat and Shalutikar.
Both of these were used for flying in supplies and arms from India. Pakistan sent another 5 battalions from West
Pakistan as reinforcements.

Indian involvement

Unit Key

Type Size Nation

[S] = Paratroop hM_ . -'° J9, *" Bsl □

53 I l36 Brigade

I^SJ = Mountain £S£ 5S«^™ I I = Mukti Bahini

Illustration showing military units and troop
movements during the war.

Major battles

• Battle of Boyra

• Battle of Garibpur

• Battle of Dhalai

• Battle of Hilli

• Battle of Kushtia

Wary of the growing involvement of India, the Pakistan Air Force (PAF) launched a pre-emptive strike on Indian Air
Force bases on 3 December 1971. The attack was modelled on the Israeli Air Force's Operation Focus during the
Six-Day War, and intended to neutralize the Indian Air Force planes on the ground. The strike was seen by India as
an open act of unprovoked aggression. This marked the official start of the Indo-Pakistani War.

As a response to the attack, both India and Pakistan formally acknowledged the "existence of a state of war between
the two countries", even though neither government had formally issued a Declaration of War.

Three Indian corps were involved in the invasion of East Pakistan. They were supported by nearly three brigades of
Mukti Bahini fighting alongside them, and many more fighting irregularly. This was far superior to the Pakistani
army of three divisions. The Indians quickly overran the country, selectively engaging or bypassing heavily
defended strongholds. Pakistani forces were unable to effectively counter the Indian attack, as they had been
deployed in small units around the border to counter guerrilla attacks by the Mukti Bahini. Unable to defend
Dhaka, the Pakistanis surrendered on 16 December 1971.

The speed of the Indian strategy can be gauged by the fact that one of the regiments of the Indian army (7 Punjab,
now 8 Mechanised Inf Regiment) fought the liberation war along the Jessore and Khulna axis. They were newly

Bangladesh Liberation War 157

converted to a mechanised regiment, and it took them just one week to reach Khulna after capturing Jessore. Their
losses were limited to just 2 newly acquired APCs (SKOT) from the Russians.

India's external intelligence agency, the RAW, played a crucial role in providing logistic support to the Mukti Bahini
during the initial stages of the war. RAW's operation, in then East Pakistan, was the largest covert operation in the
history of South Asia.

Pakistani response

Pakistan launched a number of armoured thrusts along India's western front in attempts to force Indian troops away
from East Pakistan. Pakistan tried to fight back and boost the sagging morale by incorporating the Special Services
Group commandos in sabotage and rescue missions.

The air and naval war

The Indian Air Force carried out several sorties against Pakistan, and within a week, IAF aircraft dominated the skies
of East Pakistan. It achieved near-total air supremacy by the end of the first week as the entire Pakistani air
contingent in the east, PAF No. 14 Squadron, was grounded because of Indian airstrikes at Tejgaon, Kurmitolla, Lai
Munir Hat and Shamsher Nagar. Sea Hawks from INS Vikrant also struck Chittagong, Barisal and Cox's Bazar,
destroying the eastern wing of the Pakistan Navy and effectively blockading the East Pakistan ports, thereby cutting
off any escape routes for the stranded Pakistani soldiers. The nascent Bangladesh Navy (comprising officers and
sailors who defected from the Pakistani Navy) aided the Indians in the marine warfare, carrying out attacks, most
notably Operation Jackpot.

Surrender and aftermath

On 16 December 1971, Lt. Gen A. A. K. Niazi, CO of Pakistan Army forces located in East Pakistan signed the
Instrument of Surrender. At the time of surrender only a few countries had provided diplomatic recognition to the
new nation. Over 93,000 Pakistani troops surrendered to the Indian forces, making it the largest surrender since
World War II. Bangladesh sought admission in the UN with most voting in its favour, but China vetoed this as
Pakistan was its key ally. The United States, also a key ally of Pakistan, was one of the last nations to accord
Bangladesh recognition. To ensure a smooth transition, in 1972 the Simla Agreement was signed between India
and Pakistan. The treaty ensured that Pakistan recognised the independence of Bangladesh in exchange for the return
of the Pakistani PoWs. India treated all the PoWs in strict accordance with the Geneva Convention, rule 1925. It
released more than 93,000 Pakistani PoWs in five months.

Further, as a gesture of goodwill, nearly 200 soldiers who were sought for war crimes by Bengalis were also

2

pardoned by India. The accord also gave back more than 13000 km (unknown operator: u'strong' sq mi) of land

T711
that Indian troops had seized in West Pakistan during the war, though India retained a few strategic areas; most

notably Kargil (which would in turn again be the focal point for a war between the two nations in 1999). This was

done as a measure of promoting "lasting peace" and was acknowledged by many observers as a sign of maturity by

India. However, some in India felt that the treaty had been too lenient to Bhutto, who had pleaded for leniency,

arguing that the fragile democracy in Pakistan would crumble if the accord was perceived as being overly harsh by

Pakistanis.

Bangladesh Liberation War 158

Reaction in West Pakistan to the war

Reaction to the defeat and dismemberment of half the nation was a shocking loss to top military and civilians alike.
No one had expected that they would lose the formal war in under a fortnight, and there was also unsettlement over
what was perceived as a meek surrender of the army in East Pakistan. Yahya Khan's dictatorship collapsed and gave
way to Bhutto, who took the opportunity to rise to power. General Niazi, who surrendered along with 93,000 troops,
was viewed with suspicion and contempt upon his return to Pakistan. He was shunned and branded a traitor. The war
also exposed the shortcomings of Pakistan's declared strategic doctrine that the "defence of East Pakistan lay in West

T721

Pakistan". Pakistan also failed to gather international support, and found itself fighting a lone battle with only the
USA providing any external help. This further embittered the Pakistanis, who had faced the worst military defeat of
an army in decades.

The debacle immediately prompted an enquiry headed by Justice Hamoodur Rahman. Called the Hamoodur Rahman
Commission, it was initially suppressed by Bhutto as it put the military in a poor light. When it was declassified, it
showed many failings from the strategic to the tactical levels. It also condemned the atrocities and the war crimes
committed by the armed forces. It confirmed the looting, rapes and the killings by the Pakistan Army and their local
agents although the figures are far lower than the ones quoted by Bangladesh. According to Bangladeshi sources,
200,000 women were raped and over 3 million people were killed, while the Rahman Commission report in Pakistan
claimed 26,000 died and the rapes were in the hundreds. However, the army's role in splintering Pakistan after its
greatest military debacle was largely ignored by successive Pakistani governments.

Atrocities

During the war there were widespread killings and other atrocities — including the displacement of civilians in
Bangladesh (East Pakistan at the time) and widespread violations of human rights — carried out by the Pakistan

Army with support from political and religious militias, beginning with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25

T321
March 1971. Bangladeshi authorities claimed that three million people were killed, while the Hamoodur Rahman

T731
Commission, an official Pakistan Government investigation, put the figure at 26,000 civilian casualties. The

international media and reference books in English by authors and genocide scholars such as Samuel Totten have

T741
also published figures of up to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, although independent researchers put the toll

r-7C"i r76i

at 300,000 to 500,000. A further eight to ten million people fled the country to seek safety in India.

A large section of the intellectual community of Bangladesh were murdered, mostly by the Al-Shams and Al-Badr

T771 T7R1

forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. Just two days before the surrender, on 14 December 1971,

Pakistan Army and Razakar militia (local collaborators) picked up at least 100 physicians, professors, writers and

[791
engineers in Dhaka, and murdered them, leaving the dead bodies in a mass grave. There are many mass graves in

Bangladesh, with an increasing number discovered throughout the proceeding years (such as one in an old well near

a mosque in Dhaka, located in the non-Bengali region of the city, which was discovered in August 1999). The

first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dhaka to the

roil

United States State Department, saw indiscriminate killings of students of Dhaka University and other civilians.
Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war; the exact numbers are not known and are a subject

of debate. Bangladeshi sources cite a figure of 200,000 women raped, giving birth to thousands of war

rs2irs3irs4i
babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex-slaves inside the Dhaka

roc]

Cantonment. Most of the girls were captured from Dhaka University and private homes. There was significant

sectarian violence not only perpetrated and encouraged by the Pakistani army, but also by Bengali nationalists

rs7i
against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis.

On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of
declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and United States

roo]

Information Service centres in Dhaka and India, and officials in Washington DC. These documents show that US
officials working in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms "selective genocide" and "genocide"

Bangladesh Liberation War 159

(see The Blood Telegram) for information on events they had knowledge of at the time). Genocide is the term that is
still used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh, although

elsewhere, particularly in Pakistan, the actual death toll, motives, extent, and destructive impact of the actions of the
Pakistani forces are disputed.

Foreign reaction
United Nations

Though the United Nations condemned the human rights violations during and following Operation Searchlight, it
failed to defuse the situation politically before the start of the war.

Following Sheikh Mujibur Rahman's declaration of independence in March 1971, India undertook a world-wide

campaign to drum up political, democratic and humanitarian support for the people of Bangladesh for their liberation

struggle. Prime Minister Indira Gandhi toured a large number of countries in a bid to create awareness of the

Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis. This effort was to prove vital later during the war, in framing the world's

[92]
context of the war and to justify military action by India. Also, following Pakistan's defeat, it ensured prompt

recognition of the newly independent state of Bangladesh.

Following India's entry into the war, Pakistan, fearing certain defeat, made urgent appeals to the United Nations to
intervene and force India to agree to a cease fire. The UN Security Council assembled on 4 December 1971 to
discuss the hostilities in South Asia. After lengthy discussions on 7 December, the United States made a resolution
for "immediate cease-fire and withdrawal of troops". While supported by the majority, the USSR vetoed the
resolution twice. In light of the Pakistani atrocities against Bengalis, the United Kingdom and France abstained on
the resolution.

On 12 December, with Pakistan facing imminent defeat, the United States requested that the Security Council be

reconvened. Pakistan's Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Minister, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, was rushed to New York

City to make the case for a resolution on the cease fire. The council continued deliberations for four days. By the

time proposals were finalised, Pakistan's forces in the East had surrendered and the war had ended, making the

measures merely academic. Bhutto, frustrated by the failure of the resolution and the inaction of the United Nations,

[93]
ripped up his speech and left the council.

[92]
Most UN member nations were quick to recognize Bangladesh within months of its independence.

USA and USSR

[94]
The United States supported Pakistan both politically and materially. U.S. President Richard Nixon denied getting

involved in the situation, saying that it was an internal matter of Pakistan, but when Pakistan's defeat seemed certain,

[95]
Nixon sent the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise to the Bay of Bengal, a move deemed by the Indians as a nuclear

threat. Enterprise arrived on station on 11 December 1971. On 6 and 13 December, the Soviet Navy dispatched two

groups of ships, armed with nuclear missiles, from Vladivostok; they trailed U.S. Task Force 74 in the Indian Ocean

from 18 December until 7 January 1972.

Bangladesh Liberation War

160

^ "'

-

â– -â– 

t^^m?

The Nixon administration provided support to

Pakistani President Yahya Khan during the

turmoil.

Nixon and Henry Kissinger feared Soviet expansion into South and

Southeast Asia. Pakistan was a close ally of the People's Republic of

China, with whom Nixon had been negotiating a rapprochement and

which he intended to visit in February 1972. Nixon feared that an

Indian invasion of West Pakistan would mean total Soviet domination

of the region, and that it would seriously undermine the global position

of the United States and the regional position of America's new tacit

ally, China. In order to demonstrate to China the bona fides of the

United States as an ally, and in direct violation of the US

Congress-imposed sanctions on Pakistan, Nixon sent military supplies

to Pakistan and routed them through Jordan and Iran, while also

encouraging China to increase its arms supplies to Pakistan. The Nixon

administration also ignored reports it received of the genocidal activities of the Pakistani Army in East Pakistan,

most notably the Blood telegram.

The Soviet Union supported Bangladesh and Indian armies, as well as the Mukti Bahini during the war, recognising
that the independence of Bangladesh would weaken the position of its rivals — the United States and China. It gave
assurances to India that if a confrontation with the United States or China developed, the USSR would take
countermeasures. This was enshrined in the Indo-Soviet friendship treaty signed in August 1971. The Soviets also
sent a nuclear submarine to ward off the threat posed by USS Enterprise in the Indian Ocean.

At the end of the war, the Warsaw Pact countries were among the first to recognize Bangladesh. The Soviet Union
accorded recognition to Bangladesh on 25 January 1972. The United States delayed recognition for some months,

before according it on 8 April 1972

[98]

China

As a long-standing ally of Pakistan, the People's Republic of China reacted with alarm to the evolving situation in
East Pakistan and the prospect of India invading West Pakistan and Pakistani-controlled Kashmir. Believing that just
such an Indian attack was imminent, Nixon encouraged China to mobilise its armed forces along its border with
India to discourage it. The Chinese did not, however, respond to this encouragement, because unlike the 1962
Sino-Indian War when India was caught entirely unaware, this time the Indian Army was prepared and had deployed
eight mountain divisions to the Sino-Indian border to guard against such an eventuality. China instead threw its

weight behind demands for an immediate ceasefire.

[99]
When Bangladesh applied for membership to the United Nations in 1972, China vetoed their application because

two United Nations resolutions regarding the repatriation of Pakistani prisoners of war and civilians had not yet been

implemented. China was also among the last countries to recognize independent Bangladesh, refusing to do so

until 31 August 1975

[92] [99]

Bangladesh Liberation War 161

Footnotes

[I] "Britain Proposes Indian Partition" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=78xTAAAAIBAJ&sjid=6DgNAAAAIBAJ&
pg=1738,3655&dq=india+partition&hl=en). BUP. Regina, Saskatchewan, Canada: The Leader-Post. 2 June 1947. .

[2] Grover, Preston (8 June 1947). "India Partition Will Present Many Problems" (http://news.google.com/

newspapers ?id=VbYqAAAAIBAJ&sjid=mGQEAAAAIBAJ&pg=1342,6305096&dq=india+partition&hl=en). Associated Press. Sarasota,

Florida, USA: Herald-Tribune, via Google News. .
[3] "Problems of Partition" (http://news.google.com/newspapers?id=WPdUAAAAIBAJ&sjid=GZMDAAAAIBAJ&pg=7167,1795176&

dq=india+partition&hl=en). Sydney, Australia: The Sydney Morning Herald. 14 June 1947. .
[4] ""Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971." Gendercide Watch" (http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html). Gendercide.org. . Retrieved 23

June 2011.
[5] ""Emerging Discontent, 1966—70." Country Studies Bangladesh" (http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm). Countrystudies.us. .

Retrieved 23 June 201 1.
[6] Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971: Military Action: Operation Searchlight Bose S Economic and Political

Weekly Special Articles, 8 October 2005 (http://www.epw.org.in/show Articles. php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&

filetype=html)
[7] The Pakistani Slaughter That Nixon Ignored , Syndicated Column by Sydney Schanberg, New York Times, 3 May 1994
[8] "Civil War Rocks East Pakistan" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=Rk4fAAAAIBAJ&sjid=jtEEAAAAIBAJ&

pg=2676,6420028&dq=east+pakistan+independence&hl=en). Associated Press. Daytona Beach, Florida, USA: Daytona Beach Morning

Journal, via Google News. 27 March 1971. .
[9] Crisis in South Asia —A report by Senator Edward Kennedy to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their

Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee, 1 November 1971, U.S. Govt. Press. pp6-7
[10] ""India and Pakistan: Over the Edge." TIME 13 December 1971 Vol. 98 No. 24" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/

0,9171,910155-2,00.html). TIME. 13 December 1971. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.

[II] Al Helal, Bashir, Language Movement (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/L_0063.htm), Banglapedia

[12] "Language Movement" (http://banglapedia.net/HT/L_0063.HTM) (PHP). Banglapedia — The National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh.

Asiatic Society of Bangladesh. . Retrieved 6 February 2007.
[13] "International Mother Language Day — Background and Adoption of the Resolution" (http://web.archive.org/web/20070520205804/

http://www.pmo.gov.bd/21february/imld_back.htm). Government of Bangladesh. Archived from the original (http://www.pmo.gov.

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[14] Rahman, Tariq (September 1997). "Language and Ethnicity in Pakistan". Asian Survey 37 (9): 833—839.

doi:10.1525/as.l997.37.9.01p02786. ISSN 0004-4687. JSTOR 2645700.
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[16] Oldenburg, Philip (August 1985). ""A Place Insufficiently Imagined": Language, Belief, and the Pakistan Crisis of 1971". The Journal of

Asian Studies 44 (4): 711-733. doi: 10.2307/2056443. ISSN 0021-9118. JSTOR 2056443.
[17] "Library of Congress studies" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r7frd/cstdy: @field(DOCID+bd0139)). Memory.loc.gov. 1 July

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[18] "Demons of December — Road from East Pakistan to Bangladesh" (http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/dec/demons.htm).

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[19] Rounaq Jahan (1972). Pakistan: Failure in National Integration. Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-03625-6. Pg 166—167
[20] Sayeed, Khalid B. (1967). The Political System of Pakistan. Houghton Mifflin, p. 61.
[21] Hassan, Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), Dr. Professor Mubashir (May 2000) [2000], "§Zulfikar Ali Bhutto: All Power to People! Democracy

and Socialism to People!" (in English), The Mirage of Power, Oxford University, United Kingdom: Dr. Professor Mubashir Hassan, professor

of Civil Engineering at the University of Engineering and Technology and the Oxford University Press, p. 393, ISBN 0-19-579300-5
[22] India Meteorological Department (1970). "Annual Summary — Storms & Depressions" (http://docs.lib.noaa.gov/rescue/cd024_pdf/

005ED281.pdf#page=10) (PDF). India Weather Review 1970. pp. 10-11. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.
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PUBS/publications/P024.PDF) (PDF). Institute of Water Modelling. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.
[24] Schanberg, Sydney (22 November 1970). "Yahya Condedes 'Slips' In Relief". New York Times.

[25] Staff writer (23 November 1970). "East Pakistani Leaders Assail Yahya on Cyclone Relief". New York Times. Reuters.
[26] Staff writer (18 November 1970). "Copter Shortage Balks Cyclone Aid". New York Times.

[27] Durdin, Tillman (11 March 1971). "Pakistanis Crisis Virtually Halts Rehabilitation Work In Cyclone Region". New York Times.
[28] Olson, Richard (21 February 2005). "A Critical Juncture Analysis, 1964—2003" (http://www.usaid.gov/our_work/

humanitarian_assistance/disaster_assistance/publications/ofda_cjanalysis_02_21-2005.pdf) (PDF). USAID. . Retrieved 15 April 2007.
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October 2005

Bangladesh Liberation War 162

[30] Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, p63, p228-9 id = ISBN 984-05-1373-7

[31] From Deterrence and Coercive Diplomacy to War — The 1971 Crisis in South Asia. Asif Siddiqui, Journal of International and Area Studies

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and Mass Murder since 1900. pp. 544. ISBN 978-3-8258-4010-5. ""...They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of

its Hindus and drive the rest into India. ... This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide'."
[35] Debasish Roy Chowdhury (23 June 2005). '"Indians are bastards anyway'" (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.

html). Asia Times. .
[36] Malik, Amita (1972). The Year of the Vulture. New Delhi: Orient Longmans, pp. 79-83. ISBN 0-8046-8817-6.
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[39] "Joy" is the Bengali word that means victory, so Joy Bangla would translate to Victorious Bengal or Victory to Bengal
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[41] The Daily Star, 26 March 2005 (http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/03/26/index.htm) Article not specified
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Publications, p. 149. ISBN 978-81-7041-859-7.
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June 2011.
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[47] "Bangladesh" (http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ei/bgn/3452.htm). State.gov. 24 May 2010. . Retrieved 23 June 201 1.
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[50] Hassan, Moyeedul, Muldhara' 71, pp45 - pp46
[51] Islam, Major Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions, pp227, pp235
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[57] Hassan, Moyeedul, Muldhara 71, pp 44

[58] Ali, Maj. Gen. Rao Farman, How Pakistan Got Divided, pp 100
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[60] Khan, Maj. Gen. Fazal Mukeem, Pakistan's Crisis in Leadership, ppl25
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article_326.shtml). Acig.org. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.
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1971-12-13. . Retrieved 2011-08-17.
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0,9171, 878969-4,00.html). TIME. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.
[66] Indian Army after Independence by Maj KC Praval 1993 Lancer p317 ISBN 1-897829-45-0
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1972/1972-l-9.htm) -Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan
[69] Guess who's coming to dinner (http://www.newint.org/issue332/guess.htm) Naeem Bangali

Bangladesh Liberation War 163

[70] "Bangladesh: Unfinished Justice for the crimes of 1971 — South Asia Citizens Web" (http://www.sacw.net/article524.html). Sacw.net. .

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Storyofpakistan.com. 1 June 2003. . Retrieved 23 June 2011.
[72] Defencejournal (http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/oct/yaqub.htm), Redefining security imperatives by M Sharif (http://www.

jang.com.pk/thenews/aug2004-weekly/nos-15-08-2004/poll.htm#l) — Article in Jang newspaper, General Niazi's Failure in High

Command (http://www.ghazali.net/book8/Chapter_5/body_chapter_5.html)
[73] Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/

default, shtm), chapter 2 (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm),

paragraph 33
[74] Totten, Samuel; Paul Robert Bartrop, Steven L. Jacobs. Dictionary of Genocide: A-L. Volume 1: Greenwood, p. 34.

ISBN 978-0-313-32967-8.
[75] "Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18049515). BBC. 13 May 2012. .

Retrieved 13 May 2012.
[76] Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900" (http://www.Hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.

CHAP8.HTM), ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calcualtions (http://

www. hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB8. 2. GIF): lowest estimate two million claimed by Pakistan (reported by Aziz, Qutubuddin. Blood

and tears Karachi: United Press of Pakistan, 1974. pp. 74,226), all the other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10

million with one (Johnson, B. L. C. Bangladesh. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975. pp. 73,75) that "could have been" 12 million.
[77] Many of the eyewitness accounts of relations that were picked up by "Al Badr" forces describe them as Bengali men. The only survivor of

the Rayerbazar killings describes the captors and killers of Bengali professionals as fellow Bengalis. See 37 Dilawar Hossain, account

reproduced in 'Ekattorer Ghatok-dalalera ke Kothay' (Muktijuddha Chetona Bikash Kendro, Dhaka, 1989)
[78] Asadullah Khan The loss continues to haunt us (http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d512141501 115.htm) in The Daily Star 14

December 2005
[79] "125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal" (http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.

html?res=F50C13F83C5E127A93CBA81789D95F458785F9). New York Times (New York, NY, USA): p. 1. 19 December 1971. . Retrieved

4 January 2008. "At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers were found murdered today in a field outside

Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. They were among an estimated 300

Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters."
[80] DPA report Mass grave found in Bangladesh (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/1999/99aug08/world.htm#7) in The Chandigarh Tribune 8

August 1999
[81] Sajit Gandhi The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 (http://www.

gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/) 16 December 2002
[82] "Bengali Wives Raped in War Are Said to Face Ostracism" (http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/

19720118_nyt_bengali_wives_raped_in_war_are_said_to_face_ostracism.pdf). The New York Times. 1972-01-08. . Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[83] Menen, Aubrey (1972-07-23). "The Rapes of Bangladesh" (http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/

19720723_nyt_the_rapes_of_bangladesh.pdf). The New York Times. . Retrieved 201 1-1 1-10.
[84] Astrachan, Anthony (1972-03-22). "U.N. Asked to Aid Bengali Abortions" (http://www.docstrangelove.com/uploads/1971/foreign/

19720322_wp_un_asked_to_aid_bengali_abortions.pdf). The Washington Post. . Retrieved 2011-11-10.
[85] East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep (http://www.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0, 9171, 877316, 00. html), Time Magazine, 25 October

1971.
[86] U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere

(http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf), 31 March 1971, Confidential, 3 pp
[87] Sen, Sumit (1999). "Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: the Bihari Refugees of South Asia, Part 1 " (http://ijrl.oxfordjournals.org/

cgi/reprint/1 1/4/625. pdf) (PDF). International Journal of Refugee Law 11 (4): 625-645. doi:10.1093/ijrl/l 1.4.625. . Retrieved 20 October

2006.
[88] Gandhi, Sajit, ed. (16 December 2002), The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/

NSAEBB79/): National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79
[89] U.S. Consulate in Dacca (27 March 1971), Selective genocide (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBBl.pdf),

Cable (PDF)
[90] Editorial " The Jamaat Talks Back (http://www.bangladeshobserveronline.com/new/2005/12/30/editorial.htm)" in The Bangladesh

Observer 30 December 2005
[91] Dr. N. Rabbee " Remembering a Martyr (http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/12/03/remembrance.htm)" Star weekend

Magazine, The Daily Star 16 December 2005
[92] "The Recognition Story" (http://www. bdsdf.org/forum/index. php?showtopic=3072). Bangladesh Strategic and Development Forum. .

Retrieved 201 1-08-17.
[93] "Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto's farewell speech to the United Nations Security Council - Wikisource" (http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/

Zulfiqar_Ali_Bhutto's_farewell_speech_to_the_United_Nations_Security_Council). En.wikisource.org. . Retrieved 2011-10-26.

Bangladesh Liberation War 164

[94] "Nixon and Pakistan: An Unpopular Alliance" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=lLslAAAAIBAJ&sjid=R_MFAAAAIBAJ&

pg=3565,2560587&dq=nixon+pakistan&hl=en). Reuters. Miami, Florida, USA: The Miami News, via Google News. 17 December 1971. .
[95] Scott, Paul (21 December 1971). "Naval 'Show of Force' By Nixon Meant As Blunt Warning to India" (http://news.google.com/

newspapers ?id=HUU0AAAAIBAJ&sjid=IeEIAAAAIBAJ&pg=5099,2016461&dq=nixon+pakistan+military&hl=en). Bangor, Maine,

USA: Bangor Daily News, via Google News. .
[96] Shalom, Stephen R., The Men Behind Yahya in the Indo-Pak War of 1971 (http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue47/articles/a07.

htm)
[97] "USSR, Czechoslovakia Recognize Bangladesh" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=OdIoAAAAIBAJ&sjid=gQYGAAAAIBAJ&

pg=2219,2272476&dq=bangladesh+ussr+recognize&hl=en). Associated Press. Sumter, South Carolina, USA: The Sumter Daily Item, via

Google News. January 25, 1972. .
[98] "Nixon Hopes for Subcontinent Peace" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=5TMsAAAAIBAJ&sjid=5ssEAAAAIBAJ&

pg=3505,1398456&dq=usa+recognize+bangladesh&hl=en). Associated Press. Spartanburg, South Carolina, USA: Herald-Journal, via

Google News. 9 April 1972. .
[99] "China Recognizes Bangladesh" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=rnVKAAAAIBAJ&sjid=RSINAAAAIBAJ&

pg=4237,20391&dq=china+recognize+bangladesh&hl=en). Associated Press. Oxnard, California, USA: The Press Courier, via Google

News. 1 September 1975. .
[100] "China Veto Downs Bangladesh UN Entry" (http://news. google.com/newspapers ?id=GQsyAAAAIBAJ&sjid=w6EFAAAAIBAJ&

pg=4712,6055847&dq=bangladesh+united-nations+china&hl=en). United Press International. Montreal, Quebec, Canada: The Montreal

Gazette, via Google News. August 26, 1972. .

References

• Pierre Stephen and Robert Payne: Massacre, Macmillan, New York, (1973). ISBN 0-02-595240-4

• Christopher Hitchens "The Trials of Henry Kissinger", Verso (2001). ISBN 1-85984-631-9

• Library of Congress Country Studies

Further reading

Ayoob, Mohammed and Subrahmanyam, K., The Liberation War, S. Chand and Co. pvt Ltd. New Delhi, 1972.

Bhargava, G.S., Crush India or Pakistan's Death Wish, ISSD, New Delhi, 1972.

Bhattacharyya, S. K., Genocide in East Pakistan/Bangladesh: A Horror Story, A. Ghosh Publishers, 1988.

Brownmiller, Susan: Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, Ballantine Books, 1993.

Choudhury, G.W., "Bangladesh: Why It Happened." International Affairs . (1973). 48(2): 242-249.

Choudhury, G.W., The Last Days of United Pakistan, Oxford University Press, 1994.

Govt, of Bangladesh, Documents of the war of Independence, Vol 01-16, Ministry of Information.

Kanjilal, Kalidas, The Perishing Humanity, Sahitya Loke, Calcutta, 1976

Johnson, Rob, 'A Region in Turmoil' (New York and London, 2005)

Malik, Amita, The Year of the Vulture, Orient Longmans, New Delhi, 1972.

Mascarenhas, Anthony, The Rape ofBangla Desh, Vikas Publications, 1972.

Matinuddin, General Kamal, Tragedy of Errors: East Pakistan Crisis, 1968—1971, Wajidalis, Lahore, Pakistan,

1994.

Mookherjee, Nayanika, A Lot of History: Sexual Violence, Public Memories and the Bangladesh Liberation War

of 1971, D. Phil thesis in Social Anthropology, SOAS, University of London, 2002.

National Security Archive, The Tilt: the U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 (http://www.gwu.edu/

~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79)

Quereshi, Major General Hakeem Arshad, The 1971 Indo-Pak War, A Soldiers Narrative, Oxford University

Press, 2002.

Rummel, R.J., Death By Government, Transaction Publishers, 1997.

Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, Oxford University Press, Karachi, Pakistan, 1977.

Sisson, Richard & Rose, Leo, War and secession: Pakistan, India, and the creation of Bangladesh, University of

California Press (Berkeley), 1990.

Bangladesh Liberation War 165

• Totten, Samuel et al., eds., Century of Genocide: Eyewitness Accounts and Critical Views, Garland Reference
Library, 1997

• US Department of State Office of the Historian, Foreign Relations of the United States: Nixon-Ford
Administrations, vol. E-7, Documents on South Asia 1969—1972 (http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/
xi)

• Zaheer, Hasan: The separation of East Pakistan: The rise and realization of Bengali Muslim nationalism, Oxford
University Press, 1994.

• Raja, Dewan Mohammad Tasawwar (2010). O GENERAL MY GENERAL (Life and Works of General M. A. G.
Osmani). The Osmani Memorial Trust, Dhaka, Bangladesh. ISBN 978-984-8866-18-4.

External links

• Banglapedia article on the Liberation war of Bangladesh (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/W_0020.
htm)

1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive (http://www.genocidebangladesh.org/)

Video Streaming of 5 Liberation war documentaries (http://www.banglagallery.net/vdo/index.php)
Video, audio footage, news reports, pictures and resources from Mukto-mona (http://www.mukto-mona.com/
1 97 1/English/ archive, htm)

Picture Gallery of the Language Movement 1952 & the Independence War 1971 of Bangladesh (http://ethikana.
com/gallery /w ar. htm)

Bangladesh Liberation War. Mujibnagar. Government Documents 1971 (http://www.newagebd.com/2005/
feb/18/febl8/xtra_also3.html)

Torture in Bangladesh 1971—2004 (PDF) (http://www.redress.org/publications/Bangladesh.pdf)
Eyewitness Accounts: Genocide in Bangladesh (http://www.globalwebpost.com/genocidel971/witness/
rounaq.htm)

Genocide 1971 (http://www.engr.uconn.edu/~faisal/Genocide.html)

The women of 1971. Tales of abuse and rape by the Pakistan Army, (http://drishtipat.org/1971/war.htm)
Mathematics of a Massacre, Abul Kashem (http://www.mukto-mona.com/new_site/mukto-mona/Articles/
kasem/mathematics_genocide . htm)

The complete Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/
Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.shtm)

1971 Massacre in Bangladesh and the Fallacy in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report, Dr. M.A. Hasan
(http://www.bangladeshmariners.com/HmdrRprt/71mass.html)

Women of Pakistan Apologize for War Crimes, 1996 (http://www.adhunika.com/issues/wpawc7 1 .html)
Pakistan Army not involved (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default. asp?page=story_30-6-2005_pgl_2)
Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers, by Anwar Iqbal, Dawn, 7 July 2005 (http://www.dawn.com/
2005/07/07/nat3.htm)

Page containing copies of the surrender documents (http://www.muktadhara.net/pagell.html)
A website dedicated to Liberation war of Bangladesh (http://www.jonmojuddho.org/)
Video clip of the surrender by Pakistan (http://indianarmy.nic.in/arimage/Pak_surrender.WMV)
Bangladesh Liberation War Picture Gallery (http://www.banglagallery. com/gallery/categories. php?cat_id=5)

Graphic images, viewer discretion advised

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 166

1971 Bangladesh atrocities

Beginning with the start of Operation Searchlight on 25 March 1971 and due to the Bangladesh Liberation War,
there were numerous human rights abuses in East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) perpetrated by the Pakistan Army, with
support from local political and religious militias, especially against Hindus. Time reported a high ranking U.S.

official as saying "It is the most incredible, calculated thing since the days of the Nazis in Poland."

Bangladeshi authorities claim that as many as 3 million people were killed, although the Hamoodur Rahman

Ml

Commission, an official Pakistan Government investigation, put the figure as low as 26,000 civilian casualties.
The international media and reference books in English have also published figures which vary greatly from 200,000
to 3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole, with 300,000 to 500,000 being a figure quoted by news outlets such as the
BBC for the estimated death toll as counted by independent researchers. As a result of the conflict, a further eight
to ten million people fled the country at the time to seek refuge in neighboring India.

Many of those killed were the victims of militias who fought with the West Pakistan Army: Razakars, Al-Shams and

T71 rsi

Al-Badr forces, at the instruction of the Pakistani Army. There are many mass graves in Bangladesh, and more

are continually being discovered (such as one in an old well near a mosque in Dhaka, located in the non-Bengali

region of the city, which was discovered in August 1999). The first night of war on Bengalis, which is documented

in telegrams from the American Consulate in Dhaka to the United States State Department, saw indiscriminate

killings of students of Dhaka University and other civilians.

Some women were raped, tortured and killed during the war. The exact numbers are not known and are a subject of
debate with some sources quoting figures as high as 400,000. One particular revelation concerns 563 young Bengali
women, some only 18, who were held captive inside Dhaka's dingy military cantonment since the first days of the
fighting. They were seized from Dhaka University and private homes and forced into military brothels, with some of
the women carrying war babies being released.

There was significant sectarian violence not only perpetrated by the West Pakistani army, but also by Bengali

ri2i
nationalists against non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis.

On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archive published a collection of
declassified documents, consisting mostly of communications between US embassy officials and USIS centers in
Dhaka and India, and officials in Washington DC. These documents show that US officials working in diplomatic
institutions within Bangladesh used the terms selective genocide and genocide (see The Blood Telegram) to

describe events they had knowledge of at the time. The complete chronology of events as reported to the Nixon
administration can be found on the Department of State website.

Every major publication and newspaper in Bangladesh and some international publications on genocide and human
rights abuses use the term genocide to describe the event.

Matthew J. White, in his 2012 book The Great Big Book of Horrible Things, estimates the total death toll of the
Bengali genocide at 1.5 million. He ranks the Bengali genocide as the third worst genocide of the 20th century, after

the The Holocaust (the Jewish genocide), for which he gives an estimate of 5.5 million, and the Holodomor (the

T221
Ukrainian genocide), for which he gives an estimate of 4.2 million.

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 167

Operation Searchlight

Operation Searchlight was a planned military operation carried out by the Pakistan Army to curb elements of the

T231
separatist Bengali nationalist movement in erstwhile East Pakistan in March 1971. Ordered by the government in

West Pakistan, this was seen as the sequel to Operation Blitz which had been launched in November 1970.

The original plan envisioned taking control of the major cities on 26 March 1971, and then eliminating all

T241
opposition, political or military, within one month. The prolonged Bengali resistance was not anticipated by

[251
Pakistani planners. The main phase of Operation Searchlight ended with the fall of the last major town in Bengali

hands in mid May.

Casualties

The number of civilians that died in the Bangladesh War is not accurately known. There is a great disparity in the
casualty figures put forth by Pakistan on one hand (25,000, as reported in the Hamoodur Rahman Commission )

and India and Bangladesh on the other hand. (From 1972 to 1975 the first post-war prime minister of Bangladesh,

T271
Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, claimed on several occasions that at least three million died). The international media

and reference books in English have also published figures which vary greatly: varying from 5,000—35,000 in

Dhaka, and 200,000-3,000,000 for Bangladesh as a whole.Virtual Bangladesh: History: The Bangali Genocide, 1971

rofil T2R1

</ref> It is believed in certain quarters that the figure of three million has its origins in comments made by
Yahya Khan to the journalist Robert Payne on 22 February 1971: "Kill three million of them, and the rest will eat out

f . , ,,[29] [30]

of our hands.

In October 1997 R. J. Rummel published a book, which is available on the web, titled Statistics of Democide:
Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900. In Chapter 8, Statistics Of Pakistan's Democide - Estimates, Calculations,
And Sources, he states:

In East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) [General Agha Mohammed Yahya Khan and his top generals] also planned to murder its Bengali
intellectual, cultural, and political elite. They also planned to indiscriminately murder hundreds of thousands of its Hindus and drive the rest
into India. And they planned to destroy its economic base to insure that it would be subordinate to West Pakistan for at least a generation to
come. This despicable and cutthroat plan was outright genocide.

Rummel goes on to collate what he considers the most credible estimates published by others into what he calls
democide. He writes that "Consolidating both ranges, I give a final estimate of Pakistan's democide to be 300,000 to
3,000,000, or a prudent 1,500,000."

The Office of the Historian of the United States Department of State held a two-day conference in late June 2005 on

[31]

U.S. policy in South Asia between 1961 and 1972. According to a newspaper report published in both Pakistani
and Bangladeshi newspapers, Bangladeshi speakers at the conference stated that the official Bangladeshi figure of
civilian deaths was close to 300,000, which was wrongly translated from Bengali into English as three million.
Ambassador Shamsher M. Chowdhury acknowledged that Bangladesh alone cannot correct this mistake and

suggested that Pakistan and Bangladesh should form a joint commission to investigate the 1971 disaster and prepare

,. [32]
a report.

Killing of intellectuals

During the war, the Pakistan Army and its local collaborators carried out a systematic execution of the leading
Bengali intellectuals. A number of professors from Dhaka University were killed during the first few days of the

[2][33]

war. However, the most extreme cases of targeted killing of intellectuals took place during the last few days of

the war. Professors, journalists, doctors, artists, engineers, writers were rounded up by Pakistan Army and the
Razakar militia in Dhaka, blindfolded, taken to torture cells in Mirpur, Mohammadpur, Nakhalpara, Rajarbagh and
other locations in different sections of the city to be executed en masse , most notably at Rayerbazar and

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 168

Mirpur. Allegedly, the Pakistani Army and its paramilitary arm, the Al-Badr and Al-Shams forces

created a list of doctors, teachers, poets, and scholars.

During the nine month duration of the war, the Pakistani army, with the assistance of local collaborators
systematically executed an estimated 991 teachers, 13 journalists, 49 physicians, 42 lawyers, and 16 writers, artists
and engineers. Even after the official ending of the war on 16 December there were reports of firing from the
armed Pakistani soldiers or their collaborators. In one such incident, notable film-maker Jahir Raihan was killed on
January 30, 1972 in Mirpur allegedly by the armed Beharis. In memory of the persons killed, December 14 is
mourned in Bangladesh as Shaheed Buddhijibi Dibosh ("Day of the Martyred Intellectuals").

Several noted intellectuals who were killed from the time period of 25 March to 16 December 1971 in different parts
of the country include Dhaka University professors Dr. Govinda Chandra Dev (Philosophy), Dr. Munier Chowdhury
(Bengali Literature), Dr. Mufazzal Haider Chaudhury (Bengali Literature), Dr. Anwar Pasha (Bengali Literature), Dr
M Abul Khair (History), Dr. Jyotirmoy Guhathakurta (English Literature), Humayun Kabir (English Literature),
Rashidul Hasan (English Literature) and Saidul Hassan (Physics), as well Dr. Hobibur Rahman (Professor of

Mathematics at Rajshahi University), Dr. Mohammed Fazle Rabbee (Cardiologist), Dr. Alim Chowdhury

T421
(Ophthalmologist), Shahidullah Kaiser (Journalist), Nizamuddin Ahmed (Journalist), Selina Parvin (Journalist),

Altaf Mahmud (Lyricist and musician), Dhirendranath Datta (Politician), Ranadaprasad Saha (Philanthropist) and

Ayman Zaman (Entrepreneur & Musician). Shaheed Mohammad Salimullah (philanthropist)Shaheed Salimullah had

been killed in front of his house, the road near his house was named after him in Dhaka, Mohammadpur, the roads

name "Shaheed Salimullah".

Violence against women

[431
Numerous women were tortured, raped and killed during the war. Again, exact numbers are not known and are a

subject of debate. Bangladeshi sources cite a figure of 200,000 women raped, giving birth to thousands of

war-babies. The Pakistan Army also kept numerous Bengali women as sex-slaves inside the Dhaka Cantonment.

Most of the girls were captured from Dhaka University and private homes.

Among other sources, Susan Brownmiller refers to an even higher number of over 400,000. Pakistani sources claim
the number is much lower, though having not completely denied rape incidents. Brownmiller quotes:

Khadiga, thirteen years old, was interviewed by a photojournalist in Dacca. She was walking to school
with four other girls when they were kidnapped by a gang of Pakistani soldiers. All five were put in a
military brothel in Mohammedpur and held captive for six months until the end of the war.

The licentious attitude of the soldiers, although generally supported by the superiors, alarmed the regional high
command of Pakistan army. On April 15, 1971, in a secret memorandum to the divisional commanders, Niazi
complained,

Since my arrival, I have heard numerous reports of troops indulging in loot and arson, killing people at random and without reasons in areas
cleared of the anti state elements; of late there have been reports of rape and even the West Pakistanis are not being spared; on 12 April two
East Pakistani women were raped, and an attempt was made on two others.

Another work that has included direct experiences from the women raped is Ami Birangona Bolchhi ("I, the heroine,
speak") by Nilima Ibrahim. The work includes in its name from the word Birangona (Heroine), given by Sheikh
Mujibur Rahman after the war, to the raped and tortured women during the war. This was a conscious effort to
alleviate any social stigma the women might face in the society. How successful this effort was is doubtful, though.
In October 2005 Sarmila Bose (a Boston, Massachusetts born Harvard-educated Bengali Indian academic), published
a paper suggesting that the casualties and rape allegations in the war have been greatly exaggerated for political
purposes. A number of researchers have shown inaccuracies in the work, including flawed methodology of

statistical analysis, misrepresentation of referenced sources, and disproportionate weight to Pakistan army
testimonies.

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 169

Violence against minorities

The minorities of Bangladesh, especially the Hindus, were specific targets of the Pakistan army. There was

widespread killing of Hindu males, and rapes of women. Documented incidents in which Hindus were massacred in

[52]
large numbers include the Chuknagar massacre, the Jathibhanga massacre, and the Shankharipara massacre. More

T531
than 60% of the Bengali refugees who fled to India were Hindus. It is not exactly known what percentage of the

T541
people killed by the Pakistan army were Hindus, but it is safe to say it was disproportionately high. This

widespread violence against Hindus was motivated by a policy to purge East Pakistan of what was seen as Hindu and

Indian influences. The West Pakistani rulers identified the Bengali culture with Hindu and Indian culture, and

thought that the eradication of Hindus would remove such influences from the majority Muslims in East Pakistan.

Buddhist temples and Buddhist monks were also attacked through the course of the year.

RJ. Rummel has stated states that

The genocide and gendercidal atrocities were also perpetrated by lower-ranking officers and ordinary soldiers.
These "willing executioners" were fueled by an abiding anti-Bengali racism, especially against the Hindu
minority. "Bengalis were often compared with monkeys and chickens. Said General Niazi, 'It was a low lying
land of low lying people.' The Hindus among the Bengalis were as Jews to the Nazis: scum and vermin that
[should] best be exterminated. As to the Moslem Bengalis, they were to live only on the sufferance of the
soldiers: any infraction, any suspicion cast on them, any need for reprisal, could mean their death. And the
soldiers were free to kill at will. The journalist Dan Coggin quoted one Pakistani captain as telling him, "We
can kill anyone for anything. We are accountable to no one." This is the arrogance of Power.

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— R.J. Rummel, Death by Government

Violence against alleged collaborators

In 1947, at the time of partition and the establishment of the state of Pakistan, Bihari Muslims, many of whom were
fleeing the violence that took place during partition, migrated from India to the newly independent East Pakistan.
These Urdu-speaking people held a disproportionate number in the new country's population. Biharis were adverse
to the Bengali language movement and the subsequent nationalist movements as they maintained allegiance toward
West Pakistani rulers, causing anti-Bihari sentiments among local nationalist Bengalis. Between December 1970 and
March 1971, Bengali nationalists subjected non-Bengali minorities, especially Biharis, to systematic persecution. It
is estimated that between 15,000 and 50,000 Biharis were killed during this period, and is believed by some that

elements of the Mukti Bahini, with active support from the BDR and intelligence, either led or failed to stop the

ri2i
violence against the Biharis. When the war broke out in 1971, the Biharis sided with the Pakistan army. Some of

them joined Razakar and Al-Shams militia groups and participated in the persecution and genocide of their Bengali

countrymen including the widespread looting of Bengali properties and abetting in other criminal activities against

them. [2]

There are many reports of massacres of Biharis and alleged collaborators that took place in the period following the
surrender of the Pakistan Army on December 16, 1971. In an incident on December 19, 1971, captured on camera
and attended by members of foreign press, Abdul Kader Siddiqui and Mukti Bahini guerrilas under his command
bayoneted and shot to death a group of war prisoners accused of belonging to the Razakar paramilitary forces.

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 170

Genocide debate

Time reported a high U.S. official as saying "It is the most incredible, calculated thing since the days of the Nazis in
Poland." Genocide is the term that is used to describe the event in almost every major publication and newspaper
in Bangladesh, and is defined as "the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic,

racial, religious, or national group"

A 1972 report by the International Commission of Jurists (ICJ) noted that both sides in the conflict accused each
other of perpetrating genocide. The report observed that it may be difficult to substantiate claims that 'whole of the
military action and repressive measures taken by the Pakistan army and their auxiliary forces constituted genocide'
intended to destroy the Bengali people in whole or in part by the Pakistan army, and that 'preventing a nation from
attaining political autonomy does not constitute genocide: the intention must be to destroy in whole or in part the
people as such'. The difficulty of proving intent was considered to be further complicated by the fact that three
specific sections of the Bengali people were targeted in killings by the Pakistan army and their collaborators:
members of the Awami League, students, and East Pakistan citizens of Hindu religion. The report observed,
however, that there are is strong prima facie case that there were particular acts of genocide committed, especially
towards the end of the war, where Bengalis were targeted indiscriminately. Similarly, it was felt that there is a strong
prima facie face that crimes of genocide were committed against the Hindu population of East Pakistan.

As regards the massacres of non-Bengalis by Bengalis during and after the Liberation War, the ICJ report argued that
it is improbable that 'spontaneous and frenzied mob violence against a particular section of the community from
whom the mob senses danger and hostility is to be regarded as possessing the necessary element of conscious intent
to constitute the crime of genocide', but that, if the dolus specialis were to be proved in particular cases, this would
have constituted acts of genocide against non-Bengalis.

Many international publications on genocide and human rights abuses classify the atrocities of 1971 as an act of
genocide by West Pakistan. [18][19][20][21][65]

After the minimum 20 countries became parties to the Genocide Convention, it came into force as international law
on 12 January 1951. At that time however, only two of the five permanent members of the UN Security Council
were parties to the treaty, and it was not until after the last of the last five permanent members ratified the treaty in
1988, and the Cold War came to an end, that the international law on the crime of genocide began to be enforced. As
such, the allegation that genocide took place during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971 was never investigated
by an international tribunal set up under the auspices of the United Nations.

Although both Pakistan and its primary ally USA have denied genocide allegations, the word 'genocide' was and
is used frequently amongst observers and scholars of the events that transpired during the 1971 war. It is also

used in some publications outside the subcontinent; for example, The Guinness Book of Records lists the Bengali
atrocities as one of the top 5 genocides in the 20th century.

On 16 December 2002, the George Washington University's National Security Archives published a collection of
declassified documents, mostly consisting of communications between US officials working in embassies and USIS
centers in Dhaka and in India, and officials in Washington DC. These documents show that US officials working

>ri4i i

in diplomatic institutions within Bangladesh used the terms selective genocide and genocide (Blood telegram)
to describe events they had knowledge of at the time. They also show that President Nixon, advised by Henry
Kissinger, decided to downplay this secret internal advice, because he wanted to protect the interests of Pakistan as
he was apprehensive of India's friendship with the USSR, and he was seeking a closer relationship with China, who
supported Pakistan.

In his book The Trial of Henry Kissinger, Christopher Hitchens elaborates on what he saw as the efforts of Kissinger
to subvert the aspirations of independence on the part of the Bengalis. Hitchens not only claims that the term
genocide is appropriate to describe the results of the struggle, but also points to the efforts of Henry Kissinger in
undermining others who condemned the then ongoing atrocities as being a genocide.

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 171

However according to Sarmila Bose, a senior research fellow at Oxford University, many Bangladeshi civilians
themselves took part in the atrocities and Pakistani troops did not act alone her book has proved highly controversial
within India and Bangladesh as the popular narrative she states within these countries is that Bangladeshi nationalists
won independence in 1971 from Pakistan. She also stated that the death toll was highly inflated.

War trial attempts

Immediately after the war, the topic of putting the war criminals to trial arose. Just as the war ended, Bangladeshi
prime minister Tajuddin Ahmed admitted to Professor Anisuzzaman that the trial of the alleged Pakistani military
personnel may not be possible because of pressures from the U.S., and that neither India nor the Soviet Union were
interested in seeing a trial. As early as December 22, 1971, the Indian Army was conducting investigations of senior
Pakistani Army officers connected to the massacre of intellectuals in Dhaka, with the aim of collecting sufficient
evidence to have them tried as war criminals. They produced a list of officers who were in positions of command at

T721

the time, or were connected to the Inter-Services Screening Committee.

On December 24, 1971 Home minister of Bangladesh A. H. M. Qamaruzzaman said, "war criminals will not survive
from the hands of law. Pakistani military personnel who were involved with killing and raping have to face tribunal."
In a joint statement after a meeting between Sheikh Mujib and Indira Gandhi, the Indian government assured that it
would give all necessary assistance for bringing war criminals into justice. In February 1972, the government of
Bangladesh announced plans to put 100 senior Pakistani officers and officials on trial for crimes of genocide. The list
included General A. K. Niazi and four other generals. After the war, the Indian Army held 92,000 Pakistani
prisoners of war, and 195 of those were suspected of committing war crimes. All 195 of them were released in
April 1974 following the tripartite Simla agreement between Bangladesh, Pakistan and India, and repatriated to

T751

Pakistan, in return for Pakistan's recognition of Bangladesh. Furthermore, there was no obligation on Pakistan to
carry out investigations of allegations against the suspects, or to provide reparation to Bangladesh.

On July 30, 2009, the Minister of Law, Justice and Parliamentary Affairs of Bangladesh stated that no Pakistanis
would be tried under the International Crimes (Tribunals) Act 1973. This decision has drawn criticism by
international jurists, as it effectively gives immunity to the army commanders of the Pakistan Army who are
generally considered to be ultimately responsible for the majority of crimes of 1971.

Trials of collaborators

The Bangladesh Collaborators (Special Tribunals) Order 1972 was promulgated to bring to trial those Bangladeshis

T771
who collaborated with and aided the Pakistan Armed forces during the Liberation War of 1971. There are

conflicting accounts of the number of persons brought to trial under the 1972 Collaborators Order, ranging between

T7R1

10,000 and 40,000. At the time, the trials were considered problematic by local and external observers, as they
appear to have been used for carrying out political vendettas. R. MacLennan, a British MP who was an observer at
the trials stated that 'In the dock, the defendants are scarcely more pitiable than the succession of confused
prosecution witnesses driven (by the 88-year old defence counsel) to admit that they, too, served the Pakistan
government but are now ready to swear blind that their real loyalty was to the government of Bangladesh in
exile.' [79]

The government of Bangladesh issued a general amnesty on November 30, 1973, applying to all persons except

T7R1

those who were punished or accused of rape, murder, attempt of murder or arson. The Collaborators Order 1972
was revoked in 1975.

The International Crimes (Tribunals) Act 1973 was promulgated to prosecute any persons, irrespective of
nationality, accused of committing crimes against peace, crimes against humanity, war crimes, "violations of any
humanitarian rules applicable in armed conflicts laid out in the Geneva Conventions of 1949" and "any other crimes
under international law". Detainees held under the 1972 Collaborators order who were not released by the general

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 172

amnesty of 1973 were going to be tried under this Act. However, no trials were actually held, and all activities
related to the Act ceased after the assassination of Sheikh Mujibur Rahman in 1975.

There are no known instances of criminal investigations or trials outside of Bangladesh of alleged perpetrators of war
crimes during the 1971 war. Initial steps were taken by the Metropolitan Police to investigate individuals resident in
the United Kingdom who were alleged to have committed war crimes in a Channel 4 documentary film aired in

roin

1995. To date, no charges have been brought against these individuals.

On December 29, 1991 Ghulam Azam, who was accused of being a collaborator with Pakistan during 1971, became
the Chairman or Ameer of the political party Jamaat-e-Islami of Bangladesh, which caused controversy. This
prompted the creation of a 'National Committee for Resisting the Killers and Collaborators of 1971', after a proposal
of writer and political activist Jahanara Imam. A mock people's court was formed which on March 26, 1992, found
Ghulam Azam guilty in a mock trial and sentenced him to death.

A case was filed in the Federal Court of Australia on September 20, 2006 for alleged crimes of genocide, war crimes

and crimes against humanity during 1971 by the Pakistani Armed Forces and its collaborators. Raymond Solaiman &

rx2i
Associates acting for the plaintiff Mr. Solaiman, have released a press statement which among other things says:

We are glad to announce that a case has been filed in the Federal Magistrate's Court of Australia today under the Genocide Conventions Act
1949 and War Crimes Act. This is the first time in history that someone is attending a court proceeding in relation to the [alleged] crimes of
Genocide, war crimes and crimes against humanity during 1971 by the Pakistani Armed Forces and its collaborators. The Proceeding number
is SYG 2672 of 2006. On October 25, 2006, a direction hearing will take place in the Federal Magistrates Court of Australia, Sydney registry
before Federal Magistrate His Honor Nicholls.

On May 21, 2007, at the request of the applicant "Leave is granted to the applicant to discontinue his application
filed on September 20, 2006." (FILE NO: (P)SYG2672/2006) [83]

In March 2010, the International Crimes Tribunal (ICT) was formed in Bangladesh to hold trials of Bangladeshi
citizens accused of involvement in crimes against humanity, including genocide, rape, murder and arson during the
1971 Liberation war. The ICT, despite its name, is of local nature and has had no involvement from the United

Nations. It has been criticised by the Human Rights Watch and prominent Western jurists for bias and deficient

11 • • [85]

legal provisions.

Charge such as planning to commit crime, murder and torture have been framed against eight members, including
former leader Ghulam Azam, of Jamaat-e-Islami party. Three of these have been indicted. The members have termed
the charges as political.

Further reading

roo]

• Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971 , A Gendercide Watch case study

• Khan, Muazzam Hussain (2003), "Killing of Intellectuals" , Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh

• Shaiduzzaman (December 14, 2005), "Martyred intellectuals: martyred history" , The Daily New Age,
Bangladesh

• Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh - Estimates, Sources, and Calculations

[92]

• The 1971 Genocide in Pakistan - A Realist Perspective

• 1971 Bangladesh Genocide Archive - An online archive of chronology of events, documentations, audio,
video, images, media reports and eyewitness accounts of the 1971 Genocide in Bangladesh.

• warcrimetrialwatch The proceedings of the warcrime trials in Bangladesh.

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 173

References

• Pierre, Stephen and Robert Payne (1973), Massacre, New York: Macmillan, ISBN 0-02-595240-4

• Brownmiller, Susan, Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape, ISBN 0-449-90820-8

• Ibrahim, Nilima, Ami Virangana Bolchhi (I, the Heroine, Speak)

• Hitchens, Christopher (2001), The Trials of Henry Kissinger, Verso, ISBN 1-85984-631-9

rs7i

• NBC news about Pakistan Army atrocities in Bangladeash

Notes

[I] U.S. Consulate (Dacca) Cable, Sitrep: Army Terror Campaign Continues in Dacca; Evidence Military Faces Some Difficulties Elsewhere
(http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB6.pdf), March 31, 1971, Confidential, 3 pp

[2] Telegram 978 From the Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, March 29, 1971, 1 130Z (http://www.state.gov/documents/

organization/48049 . pdf)
[3] Pakistan: The Ravaging of Golden Bengal (http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,878408,00.html), Time, 1971-08-02
[4] Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/

default. shtm), chapter 2 (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm),

paragraph 33
[5] "Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18049515). BBC. 13 May 2012. . Retrieved

13 May 2012.
[6] Rummel, Rudolph J., "Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900" (http://www.Hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.

CHAP8.HTM), ISBN 3-8258-4010-7, Chapter 8, Table 8.2 Pakistan Genocide in Bangladesh Estimates, Sources, and Calcualtions (http://

www. hawaii.edu/powerkills/SOD.TAB8. 2. GIF): lowest estimate 2 million claimed by Pakistan (reported by Aziz, Qutubuddin. Blood and

tears Karachi: United Press of Pakistan, 1974. pp. 74,226), some other sources used by Rummel suggest a figure of between 8 and 10 million

with one (Johnson, B. L. C. Bangladesh. New York: Barnes & Noble, 1975. pp. 73,75) that "could have been" 12 million.
[7] Many of the eyewitness accounts of relations that were picked up by ' Al Badr" forces describe them as Bengali men. The only survivor of the

Rayerbazar killings describes the captors and killers of Bengali professionals as fellow Bengalis. See 37 Dilawar Hossain, account reproduced

in 'Ekattorer Ghatok-dalalera ke Kothay' (Muktijuddha Chetona Bikash Kendro, Dhaka, 1989)
[8] Asadullah Khan The loss continues to haunt us (http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d512141501115.htm) in The Daily Star

(Bangladesh) 14 December 2005
[9] DPA report Mass grave found in Bangladesh (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/1999/99aug08/world.htm#7) in The Chandigarh Tribune 8

August 1999
[10] Sajit Gandhi The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79 (http://www.

gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/) 16 December 2002

[II] East Pakistan: Even the Skies Weep (http://www.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0, 9171, 877316, 00. html), Time Magazine, October
25, 1971.

[12] Sen, Sumit (1999). "Stateless Refugees and the Right to Return: the Bihari Refugees of South Asia, Part 1 " (http://ijrl.oxfordjournals.org/

cgi/reprint/1 1/4/625. pdf) (PDF). International Journal of Refugee Law 11 (4): 625-645. doi:10.1093/ijrl/11.4.625. . Retrieved October 20,

2006.
[13] Gandhi, Sajit, ed. (16 December 2002), The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971 (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/

NSAEBB79/): National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79
[14] U.S. Consulate in Dacca (March 27, 1971), Selective genocide (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBBl.pdf),

Cable (PDF)
[15] Telegram 959 From the US Consulate General in Dacca to the Department of State, March 28, 1971, 0540Z (http://www.state.gov/

documents/organization/48048.pdf) ("Selective Genocide")
[16] Foreign Relations, 1969-1976, Volume E-7, Documents on South Asia, 1969-1972 (http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/frus/nixon/e7/

48213.htm)
[17] Dr. N. Rabbee Remembering a Martyr (http://www.thedailystar.net/magazine/2005/12/03/remembrance.htm) Star weekend Magazine,

The Daily Star 16 December 2005
[18] Rummel, Rudolph J. (1998). Statistics of Democide: Genocide and Mass Murder Since 1900 (http://books.google.com/

?id=qP0FEK351mQC). Berlin: LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Munster. pp. 153-164. ISBN 3-8258-4010-7. .
[19] Totten, Samuel; Parsons, William S.; Charny, Israel W. (2004). Century of Genocide: Critical Essays and Eyewitness Accounts (http://

books.google.com/?id=5Ef8Hrx8CdOC). London: Routledge. pp. 295-321. ISBN 0-415-94430-9. .
[20] Charny, Israel W. (1999). Encyclopedia of Genocide (http://books.google.com/?id=8Q30HcvCVuIC). California: ABC-Clio Inc..

pp. 115, 116. ISBN 0-87436-928-2. .
[21] Totten, Samuel (2000). Teaching About Genocide: Issues, Approaches and Resources (http://books. google. com/?id=LoQo50YPzTUC).

North Carolina: Information age publishing, pp. 143-155. ISBN 1-593 11-074-X. .
[22] White, Matthew J. The Great Big Book of Horrible Things New York:2012 W.W. Norton Page 190

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 174

[23] SarmilaBose Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971: Military: Action: Operation Searchlight (http://www.

epw.org.in/showArticles.php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&filetype=html) Economic and Political Weekly Special Articles, 8

October 2005
[24] Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, p63, p228-9 ISBN= 984-05-1373-7
[25] Pakistan Defence Journal, 1977, Vol 2, p2-3
[26] Hamoodur Rahman Commission (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.

shtm), Chapter 2 (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm), Paragraph 33
[27] "3 MILLION Slaughtered Sheik MUJIB Charges 'Greatest Massacre"' The Portsmouth Herald, Monday, 17 January 1972, Portsmouth, New

Hampshire
[28] Bangladesh war crimes (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/7470000.stm)
[29] Pierre Stephen and Robert Payne References needs a page number

[30] Scott Lamb Never Again? (http://www.spiegel.de/international/0, 1518, 338612, 00. html) in Der Spiegel 26 January 2005
[31] "Conference Agenda" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20080409154649/http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/46059.htm). State.gov. The

Office of Electronic Information, Bureau of Public Affairs. Archived from the original (http://www.state.gOv/r/pa/ho/46059.htm) on

April 9, 2008. .
[32] Anwar Iqbal Sheikh Mujib wanted a confederation: US papers (http://www.dawn.com/2005/07/07/nat3.htm), The Dawn, 7 July 2005,

this article was also published in the in Financial Express (http://www. financialexpress-bd.com/aboutus. asp?cnd=12/16/2005), 16

December 2005 under the byline US State Department's declassified documents
[33] Ajoy Roy, "Homage to my martyr colleagues" (http://www.mukto-mona.com/Articles/ajoy/martyr_intellectual.htm), 2002
[34] "125 Slain in Dacca Area, Believed Elite of Bengal" (http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.

html?res=F50C13F83C5E127A93CBA81789D95F458785F9). New York Times (New York, NY, USA): p. 1. 19 December 1971. . Retrieved

2008-01-04. "At least 125 persons, believed to be physicians, professors, writers and teachers were found murdered today in a field outside

Dacca. All the victims' hands were tied behind their backs and they had been bayoneted, garroted or shot. They were among an estimated 300

Bengali intellectuals who had been seized by West Pakistani soldiers and locally recruited supporters."
[35] Murshid, Tazeen M. (December 2, 1997). "State, nation, identity: The quest for legitimacy in Bangladesh". South Asia: Journal of South

Asian Studies, (Routledge) 20 (2): 1-34. doi: 10.1080/00856409708723294. ISSN 14790270.
[36] Khan, Muazzam Hussain (2003), "Killing of Intellectuals" (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/K_0261.htm), Banglapedia, Asiatic

Society of Bangladesh
[37] Shaiduzzaman (December 14, 2005), "Martyred intellectuals: martyred history" (http://www.newagebd.com/2005/dec/15/murdered/

murdered.html), The Daily New Age, Bangladesh
[38] Dr. Rashid Askari, "Our martyerd intellectuals" (http://www.thedailystar.net/2005/12/14/d51214020321.htm), editorial, the Daily Star,

December 14, 2005
[39] Dr. M.A. Hasan, Juddhaporadh, Gonohatya o bicharer anneshan, War Crimes Fact Finding Committee and Genocide archive & Human

Studies Centre, Dhaka, 2001
[40] Shahiduzzaman No count of the nation's intellectual loss (http://www.newagebd.com/2005/dec/15/murdered/murdered.html) The New

Age, December 15, 2005
[41] Killing of Intellectuals (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/K_0261.htm) Asiatic Society of Bangladesh
[42] Story of a Martyred Intellectual of 71's war (http://adnan.quaium.com/blog/56)
[43] (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJyHBTliCgA&feature=player_embedded#!)
[44] Debasish Roy Chowdhury Indians are bastards anyway' (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GF23Df04.html) in Asia Times

23 June 2005 "In Against Our Will: Men, Women and Rape, Susan Brownmiller likens it to the Japanese rapes in Nanjing and German rapes

in Russia during World War II. "... 200,000, 300,000 or possibly 400,000 women (three sets of statistics have been variously quoted) were

raped. ""
[45] Brownmiller, Susan, "Against Our Will: Men, Women, and Rape" ISBN 0-449-90820-8, page 81
[46] Hamoodur Rahman Commission (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/default.

shtm), Chapter 2 (http://www.bangla2000.com/Bangladesh/Independence-War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter2.shtm), Paragraphs

32,34
[47] GlobalWeb post, 1975 published reprint of extract from Susan Brownmiller's book (http://globalwebpost.com/genocidel971/chaps/

brownmiller.htm)
[48] Mamoon, Muntassir; translation by Kushal Ibrahim (June 2000). The Vanquished Generals and the Liberation War of Bangladesh (First

ed.). Somoy Prokashon. pp. 30. ISBN 984-458-210-5.
[49] Sarmila Bose Anatomy of violence: An Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971 (http://www.epw.org.in/showArticles.

php?root=2005&leaf=10&filename=9223&filetype=html), later published in the Indian Journal, Economic and Political Weekly, issue 8

October 2005
[50] Editorial [ New impartial evidence debunks 1971 rape allegations against Pakistan Army], Daily Times (Pakistan), 2 July 2005
[51] Salma Khatun Sarmila Bose Rewrites history (http://drishtipat.org/sarmila/sarmila.htm) website of Drishtipat "A non-profit, non-political

expatriate Bangladeshi organization ... registered public charity in the Unitied States."
[52] S. Bose, 'Dead Reckoning: Memories of the 1971 Bangladesh War', Hust and Co, London, 2011, pg. 73, 122.
[53] US State Department, "Foreign Relations of the United States, 1969-1976", Volume XI, South Asia Crisis, 1971", Page 165

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 175

[54] Kennedy, Senator Edward, "Crisis in South Asia - A report to the Subcommittee investigating the Problem of Refugees and Their

Settlement, Submitted to U.S. Senate Judiciary Committee", November 1, 1971, U.S. Govt. Press, page 66. Sen. Kennedy wrote, "Field

reports to the U.S. Government, countless eye-witness journalistic accounts, reports of International agencies such as World Bank and

additional information available to the subcommittee document the reign of terror which grips East Bengal (East Pakistan). Hardest hit have

been members of the Hindu community who have been robbed of their lands and shops, systematically slaughtered, and in some places,

painted with yellow patches marked 'H. All of this has been officially sanctioned, ordered and implemented under martial law from

Islamabad."
[55] "The Government's policy for East Bengal was spelled out to me in the Eastern Command headquarters at Dacca. It has three elements: 1.

The Bengalis have proved themselves unreliable and must be ruled by West Pakistanis; 2. The Bengalis will have to be re-educated along

proper Islamic lines. The - Islamization of the masses - this is the official jargon - is intended to eliminate secessionist tendencies and provide

a strong religious bond with West Pakistan; 3. When the Hindus have been eliminated by death and fight, their property will be used as a

golden carrot to win over the under privileged Muslim middle-class. This will provide the base for erecting administrative and political

structures in the future." Peter Hazelhurst (13 June 1971). "Dwindling flow of refugees suggests West Bengal border has been closed" (http://

archive.timesonline.co.uk). The Times of London. .
[56] BANGLADESH: A BENGALI ABBASI LURKING SOMEWHERE? (http://www.southasiaanalysis.org/papers3/paper232.html) South

Asia Analysis Group - April 23, 2001
[57] DEATH BY GOVERNMENT, By R.J. Rummel New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers, 1994 (http://www.hawaii.edu/powerkills/

NOTEl.HTM)
[58] ICJ EAST PAKISTAN 1971 REPORT, supra note 5, at 44-45, quoted in S. Linton.Criminal Law Forum (2010), p. 205.
[59] H. Stanhope, 'Mukti Bahini Bayonet Prisoners After Prayers, The Times, December 20, 1971, pg. 4.
[60] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS, THE EVENTS IN PAKISTAN: A LEGAL STUDY BY THE SECRETARIAT OF THE

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS 9 (1972)
[61] Editorial The Jamaat Talks Back (http://www.bangladeshobserveronline.com/new/2005/12/30/editorial.htm)in The Bangladesh

Observer December 30, 2005. Accessed 2009-05-25. Archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5h6qlF2Ge) 2009-05-28.
[62] Funk, T. Marcus (2010). Victims' Rights and Advocacy at the International Criminal Court. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, p.

(http://www.oup. com/us/catalog/ general/subject/Law/PublicInternationalLaw/InternationalCriminalandHumanita/?view=usa&

ci=9780199737475). ISBN 0-19-973747-9.
[63] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS, THE EVENTS IN PAKISTAN: A LEGAL STUDY BY THE SECRETARIAT OF THE

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS 9 (1972), p. 56., cited in S. Linton, 'Completing the circle: accountability for the crimes of

the 1971 Bangladesh war of liberation', Criminal Law Forum (2010) 21:191-311, p. 243.
[64] INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS, THE EVENTS IN PAKISTAN: A LEGAL STUDY BY THE SECRETARIAT OF THE

INTERNATIONAL COMMISSION OF JURISTS 9 (1972), p. 57.
[65] Guinness World Records (2006). Guinness World Records 2007 (http://books. google. com/?id=j lYnAAAACAAJ). London: Guinness

World Records Ltd.. pp. 118, 119. ISBN 1-904994-12-1. .
[66] Genocide Denial; The Case of Bangladesh by Donald W. Beachler - Online summary hosted at Institute for the Study of Genocide (http://

www.isg-iags.org/events/2005iagsconference/abstracts/IAGS 2005.proposal.doc)
[67] DISENT FROM U.S. POLICY TOWARD EAST PAKISTAN (http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/BEBB8.pdf)

(PDF) 6 April 1971. Accessed 2009-05-25. Archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5h6q25iI9) 2009-05-28.
[68] Gandhi, Sajit (ed.), The Tilt: The U.S. and the South Asian Crisis of 1971: National Security Archive Electronic Briefing Book No. 79

(http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/). Accessed 2009-05-25.
[69] Memorandam for the Record (http://www.gwu.edU/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB79/B EBB21.pdf)(PDF) August 1 1, 1971. Accessed

2009-05-25. Archived (http://www.webcitation.org/5h6q25iI9) 2009-05-28.
[70] Christopher Hitchens The Trials of Henry Kissinger (http://www.thirdworldtraveler.com/Kissinger/Bangladesh_TOHK.html)

References Pages 44,50
[71] "Controversial book accuses Bengalis of 1971 war crimes" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-13417170). BBC News. 16

June 2011..
[72] S. Dring, 'Pakistani officers on list for war crimes trials', The Times, December 23, 1971, pg. 5.
[73] The Times, '100 face genocide charges', The Times, February 23, 1972, pg. 7.
[74] Trial of Pakistani Prisoners of War (Pak. v. India) (Req. for the Indication of Interim Measures of Protection) (Order of Jul. 13, 1973), — 1,

available at http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/60/10697.pdf
[75] S. Linton, 'Completing the circle: accountability for the crimes of the 1971 Bangladesh war of liberation', Criminal Law Forum (2010)

21:191-311, p. 203.
[76] S. Linton, Criminal Law Forum (2010), p. 228.

[77] President's Order No. 8 of 1972 (1972) (Bangl.); Collaborators (Special Tribunals) Order (1972) (Bangl.).
[78] S. Linton,Criminal Law Forum (2010), p. 205.

[79] A. Mascarenhas, 'Bangladesh: A Legacy of Blood', Hodder and Stoughton, 1986, p. 25.
[80] S. Linton,Criminal Law Forum (2010), p. 206.
[81] REDRESS, Torture in Bangladesh 1971-2004: Making International Commitments a Reality and Providing Justice and Reparations to

Victims, August 2004, available at: http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4bf3a6e92.html [accessed 4 February 2012]

1971 Bangladesh atrocities 176

[82] Raymond Faisal Solaiman v People's Republic of Bangladesh & Ors (http://www.rayimmigration.com.au/pressrelease.htm) In The

Federal Magistrates Court of Australia at Sydney.
[83] This judgement can be found via the Federal Court of Australia home page (http://esearch.fedcourt.gov.au/) by following the links and

using SYG/2672/2006 as the key for the database
[84] http://www.hrw.org/news/201 1/1 1/02/bangladesh-stop-harassment-defense-war-tribunal
[85] Bangladesh war crimes are "unfair" (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AWNwXfOh-GI), Steven Kay QC, Al Jazeera English, October

2011.
[86] Bangladesh Islamist leader Ghulam Azam charged (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-18049515), 13 May 2012, bbc.co.uk
[87] "YouTube - Pakistan terrorism since 1971: Bangladesh Rape Victims" (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3v7uppdmCsA). Archived

(http://www.webcitation.org/5io7733Ky) from the original on 2009-08-05. . Retrieved 2009-08-01.

177

Naval hostilities

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971

The Indo-Pakistani Naval warfare of 1971 were the series of aggressive naval battles fought by the Indian and
Pakistani Navy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. These battles were an integral part of India-Pakistan War of
1971 and the Pakistan war in Bangladesh. The series of naval operations began by the Indian Navy to exert pressure
from the seas while the Indian Army and Indian Air Force moved in to close the ring round East Pakistan from
several directions on land. The naval operations incorporated the naval interdiction, air defence, ground support, and
logistics missions.

With the success of the Indian Navy's operations in East Pakistan, the Indian Navy commenced two large-scale
operations, Operation Trident and Operation Python in the Western front, prior to the start of formal combat between
India and Pakistan.

Background

The Indian Navy did not play a vital and integral role during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 as the war was more
focused on the land based conflict. On September 7, a flotilla of the Pakistan Navy under the command of
Commodore S.M. Anwar, carried out bombardment of the Indian Navy's radar station of Dwarka, which was 200
miles (300 km) south of the Pakistani port of Karachi. Having known as Operation Dwarka. This was one of the
most significant operation of 1965 war. This was a successful operation which caused the Indian Navy

undergo rapid modernization and expansion. Consequently, the Indian Navy budget grew from Rs. 35 crores to tRs.
1 15 crores. The Indian Navy's Combatant Fleet was augmented by addition of Submarine squadron and acquisition
of six Osa missile ship from the Soviet Union. The Indian Naval Air Arm was also strengthened. As the crises
between East and West-Pakistan began, the Indian Armed Forces intervened, hence, starting the Bangladesh
Liberation War.

Pakistani Eastern Naval Command

The Eastern Naval Command was established in 1969 and Rear- Admiral Mohammad Shariff (later four-star
Admiral) was made its first Flag Officer Commanding. Admiral Shariff administratively ran the Eastern Naval
Command, and was credited for leading the administrative operations of Eastern Naval Command. Under his
command, SSG(N), Pakistan Marines and SEALs teams were well established, where they had ran both covert and
overt operations in Eastern wing.

Having a well-established administrative Naval command, the Pakistan Combatant Forces' GHQ, Headquarter of
Pakistan Army, had declined substantial naval contingent for the defense of East Pakistan. The Pakistan Naval
Forces had inadequate ships to challenge the Indian Navy on both fronts, and the PAF was unable to protect these
ships from both Indian Air Force and the Indian Naval Air Arm. Furthermore, Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan
Navy, Vice- Admiral Muzaffar Hassan, had ordered to deploy all of the naval power in Western-Front. Most of the
Pakistan Navy's combatant vessels were deployed in West Pakistan while only one destroyer, PNS Sylhet, was
assigned in East-Pakistan on the personal request of Admiral Shariff.

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971

178

During the conflict, East Pakistan's naval ports were left
defenseless as the Eastern Military Command of Pakistan
had decided to fight the war without the navy and faced
with a hopeless task against overwhelming odds, the navy

planned to remain in the ports when war broke out

[4]

In eastern wing, the Pakistan Navy had heavily depended on
her gun boat squadron. The Pakistan's Eastern Naval
Command was in direct command of Flag Officer
Commanding (FOC) Rear- Admiral Mohammad Shariff who
also served as the right-hand of Lieutenant-General Niazi.
The Pakistan Navy had 4 (PNS Jessore, Rajshahi, Comilla,
and Sylhet). The boats were capable of attaining maximum
speed of 20 knots (37 km/h), were crewed by 29 sailors.
Having known as Pakistan Navy's brown water navy, the
gun boats were equipped with various weapons, including
heavy machine guns. The boats were adequate for patrolling
and led anti-insurgency operations. But they were
hopelessly out of place in a conventional warfare

[6]

Locations of Pakistan Navy's Combatant forces on December

1971 in and around East Pakistan. Some unit locations are not

shown. Map not to exact scale.

In the early of April, Pakistan Navy began the naval

operations around the East-Pakistan to support the Army's

executed Operation Searchlight. The Rear-Admiral

Mohammad Shariff had coordinated all of these projected missions. On April 26, Pakistan Navy had successfully

completed the Operation Barisal, but it resulted in temporary occupation of city of Barisal.

The bloody ubran guerrilla warfare ensued and Operation Jackpot had severely damaged the operational capability of
Pakistan Navy. Before the starting of the hostilities, all the naval gun boats were stationed at the Chittagong. As
the air operations were begun, the IAF aircraft damaged the Rajshahi, while Comilla sunk on 4 December. On
December 5, the IAF sank two patrol boats in Khulna. The PNS Sylhet was destroyed on December 6 and the
Balaghat on December 9 by Indian aircraft. On 11 December, the PNS Jessore was destroyed, while Rajshahi was
repaired. Rajashahi under the command of Lieutenant-Commander Shikder Hayat managed to evade the Indian
blockade and reach Malaysia before the surrender on December 16.

Naval operations in the Eastern theatre

The Indian Navy started the covert naval operations, which were executed successfully. The Eastern Naval
Command of Indian Navy had coordinated, planned, and executed these covert naval operations. In the end months
of 1971, the Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command had effectively applied a naval blockade which also completely
isolated East-Pakistan's Bay of Bengal, trapping the Eastern Pakistan Navy and eight foreign merchant ships in their
ports. The Pakistan Army's Combatant High Command, The GHQ, insisted and pressured Pakistan Navy to deploy
PNS Ghazi and to extend its sphere of naval operations, into East-Pakistan shores. The Officer in Command of
Submarine Service Branch of Pakistan Navy opposed the idea of deploying aging submarine, PNS Ghazi, in the Bay
of Bengal. It was difficult to sustain prolonged operations in a distant area, in the total absence of repair, logistic and
recreational facilities in the vicinity. At this time, submarine repair facilities were totally absent at Chittagong — the
only sea port in the east during this period. Her commander and other officers objected the plan as when it was
proposed by the senior Army and Naval officers.

In the Eastern wing of Pakistan, the Navy had never maintained a squadron of warships, despite the calls were made
by Eastern Naval Command's Flag Officer Commanding Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff. Instead, a brown water

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971

179

navy was formed consisting a gun boats riverine craft on a permanent basis. Consequently, in eastern wing, repair
and logistic facilities were not developed at Chittagong. The Indian Navy's Eastern Naval Command virtually faced
no opposition from Eastern theater. The aircraft carrier INS Vikrant, along with her escort LST ships INS Guldar,
INS Gharial, INS Magar, and the submarine INS Khanderi, executed their operations independently.

On December 4 of 1971, the INS Vikrant, the aircraft carrier, was also deployed in which its Sea Hawk attack
aircrafts contributed in Air Operations in East Pakistan. The aircrafts successfully attacked many coastal towns in
East Pakistan including Chittagong and Cox's Bazaar. The continuous attacks later dismantle the PAF's capability to
retaliate

[81

The Pakistan Navy responded by deploying her aging
long-range submarine, PNS Ghazi, to counter the threat
as the Naval Command had overruled the objections by
her officers. The PNS Ghazi, under the command of
Commander Zafar Muhammad Khan, was assumed to
locate the INS Vikrant, but when it was not able to
locate, decided to mine the port of Vishakapatnam —
the Headquarter of Eastern Naval Command. The
Indian Navy's Naval Intelligence laid a trap to sink the
submarine by giving fake reports about the aircraft
carrier. At around midnight of 3—4 December, the PNS
Ghazi began its operation of laying mines. While
Indian Navy dispatched INS Rajput to counter the
threat.

Pakistan's Ghazi was the only long range submarine operated by

either of the warring nations in 1965. The sinking of PNS Ghazi

played a point of turning role in Indian Naval operations in East

Pakistan

[10]

The INS Rajput's sonar radar reported the disturbance underwater and two of the depth charges were released.
The deadly game ended when the submarine sank mysteriously while laying a mine with all 92 hands on board
around midnight on 3 December 1971 off the Vishakapatnam coast.

The sinking of Ghazi turned out to be a major blow and set back for Pakistan Naval operations in East-Pakistan. It
diminished the possibilities of carry out the large scale of Pakistan naval operations in Bay of Bengal. It also
eliminated further threat possessed by Pakistan Navy to Indian Eastern Naval Command. On reconnaissance
mission, the Ghazi was ordered to report back to her garrison on November 26, and admitted a report Naval
Combatant Headquarter, NHQ. However, it was failed to return to her garrison. Anxiety grew day by day at the
NHQ and NHQ had pressed frantic efforts to establish communications with the submarine failed to produce results.
By the December 3rd prior to starting of the war, the doubts about the fate of submarine had already began to agitate
the commanders at the Naval Headquarter (NHQ).

On 5/6 December 1971, naval air operations were carried out Chittagong, Khulna, and Mangla harbours, and at ships
in the Pussur river. The oil installations were destroyed at Chittagong, and the Greek merchant ship Thetic Charlie
was sunk at the outer anchorage. On December 7/8, the airfields of PAF were destroyed, and the campaign continued
until 9 December. On December 12, Pakistan Navy laid mines on amphibious landing approaches to Chittagong.
This proves a useful trap for some time, and it had denied any direct access to Chittagong port for a long time, even
after the instrument of surrender had been signed. The Indian Navy therefore decided to carry out an amphibious
landing at Cox Bazar with the aim cutting off the line of re-treat for Pakistan Army troops. On December 12,
additional amphibious battalion was aboard on INS Vishwa Vijaya was sailed from Calcutta port. On the night of
December 15/16, the amphibious landing was carried out, immediately after IAF bombardment of the beach a day
earlier. After fighting for days, the human cost was very high for Pakistani forces, and no opposition or resistance
was offered by Pakistani forces to Indian forces. During this episode Eastern theater, Indian forces suffered only 2
deaths in the operation. While, Pakistan forces was reported to suffered hundreds death. By the dawn of 17
December, Indian Navy was free to operate at will in the Bay of Bengal.

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 180

Furthermore, the successful Indian Air Operations and Operation Jackpot, led by the Bengali units with the support
of Indian Army, had undermine the operational capability of Pakistan Navy. Many naval officers (mostly Bengalis)

ri4i

had defected from the Navy and fought against the Pakistan Navy. By the time Pakistan Defences Forces
surrendered, the Navy had suffered the most damages as almost all of the gun boats, destroyer (PNS Sylhet), and the
long-range submarine, PNS Ghazi, was lost in the conflict, including their officers.

On December 16, at 16:13hrs, Deputy Command of Eastern Command and the Commander of Eastern Naval
Command, Rear-Admiral Mohammad Shariff surrendered his Naval Command to Vice-Admiral R.N. Krishna
Eastern Naval Command. His TT Pistol is still placed in "cover glass" where his name is printed in big golden
alphabets at the Indian Military Academy's Museum. In 1972, U.S. Navy's Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) and
Indian Navy's Chief of Naval Staff Admiral Sardarilal Mathradas Nanda also paid him a visit with basket of fruits
and cakes which initially surprised him, and was concern of his health. While meeting with them, Admiral Shariff
summed up that:

At then end of conflict.... We [Eastern Naval Command] had no intelligence and hence, were both deaf and
blind with the Indian Navy and Indian Air Force pounding us day and night....

— Admiral Mohammad Sharif telling Admiral Zumwalt in 1971,

Sinking of INS Khukri

As the Indian military offensive in East Pakistan increases, the Pakistan Navy had dispatched her entire submarine
squadron on both front. Codename Operation Falcon, the Pakistan Navy began their reconnaissance submarine
operations by deploying PNS Hangor, a Daphne class submarine, near the coastal water of West-Pakistan, and PNS
Ghazi, Tench class submarine long range submarine, near the coastal areas of East-Pakistan.

According to the Lieutenant R. Qadri, an Electrical engineer officer at Hangor during the time, the assigned mission
was considered quite difficult and highly dangerous, with the submarine squadron sailing under the assumption that
the dangerous nature of this mission meant a great mortal risk to the submarine and her crew.

On the midnight of 21 November 1971, PNS Hangor, under the command of Commander Ahmed Tasnim, began her
reconnaissance operations. Both PNS Ghazi and PNS Hangor maintained coordination and communication
throughout patrol operations.

On December 2 and 3 December, Hangor had detected a large formation of ships from Indian Navy's Western fleet
which included cruiser INS Mysore. Hangor had passed an intelligence to Pakistan naval forces of a possible attack
by the observed Indian Armada near Karachi. The Indian Naval Intelligence intercepted these transmissions, and
dispatched two ASW frigates, INS Khukri and the INS Kirpan of 14th Squadron - Western Naval Command.

On 9 December 1971, at 1957 hours, Hangor sunk Khukri with two homing torpedoes. According to her
commander, the frigate sank within the matter of two minutes. The frigate sank with 192 hands on board. Hangor
also attacked the INS Kirpan on two separate occasions, but the torpedoes had missed their target. Kirpan quickly
disengaged and successfully evaded the fired torpedoes.

Attack on Karachi

On 4 December, the Indian Navy, equipped with P-15 Termit anti-ship missiles, launched Operation Trident against
the port of Karachi. During this time, Karachi was home to the Headquarters of the Pakistan Navy as well as the
backbone of Pakistan's economy. The Indian Navy's preemptive strike resulted in an ultimate success. The Indian
missile ships successfully sunk the minesweeper PNS Muhafiz and the destroyer PNS Khaibar. Operation Trident
was an enormous success with no physical damage to any of the ships in the Indian task group, which returned safely
to their garrison.

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971

181

Pakistan Airforce retaliated to these attacks by bombing Okha
harbour scoring direct hits on fuelling facilities for missile boats,
ammunition dump and the missile boats jetty. Indians were

ready for this and had already moved the missile boats to other

ri9i

locations to prevent any losses. But the destruction of the
special fuel tank prevented any further incursions until Operation
Python. On the way back from the bombing the PAF aircrafts

encountered an Alize 203 Indian aircraft and shot it down

[][]

Map of Karachi, indicting Karachi Deep Sea port and
Masroor Air Force Base (Click to enlarge).

On December 6, a false alarm by a Pakistani Fokker aircraft
carrying naval observers caused a friendly fire confrontation
between Pakistan's Navy and Air Force. A PAF jet mistakenly
strafed the frigate PNS Zulfikar, breaking off shortly after the ship

got itself recognized by frantic efforts. The crew suffered some casualties besides the damage to ship. The ship was

taken back to port for repair.

The Indian Navy launched a second large-scale operation on the midnight of December 8 and December 9 of 1971.

The operation, codenamed Operation Python, was commenced under the command of Chief of Naval Staff of the

T211
Indian Navy Admiral S.M. Nanda. The INS Vinash, a missile boat, and two multipurpose frigates, INS Talwar

and INS Trishul participated in the operation. The attack squadron approached Karachi and fired four missiles.

During the raid, the Panamanian vessel Gulf Star, Pakistan Navy's PNS Dacca, a destroyer, and the British ship SS

[20] [221

Harmattan were badly damaged. More than 50% of Karachi's total fuel reserves were destroyed in the attack.
More than $3 billion worth of economic and social sector damage was inflicted by the Indian Navy. Most of
Karachi's oil reserves were lost and warehouses and naval workshops destroyed. The operation damaged the
Pakistani economy and hindered the Pakistan Navy's operations along the western coast.

Ending

After the successful operations by Indian Navy, India had established complete control over the oil route from the

T251
Persian Gulf to Pakistani ports. The Pakistani Navy's main ships were either destroyed or forced to remain in port.

A partial naval blockade was imposed by the Indian Navy on the port of Karachi and no merchant ship could

approach Karachi. Shipping traffic to and from Karachi, Pakistan's only major port at that time, ceased.

Within a few days after the attacks on Karachi, the Eastern fleet of Indian Navy had success over the Pakistani forces

1241
in East Pakistan. By the end of the war, the Indian Navy controlled the seas around both the wings of Pakistan.

The War ended for both the fronts after the Instrument of Surrender of Pakistani forces stationed in East Pakistan
was signed at Ramna Race Course in Dhaka at 16.31 1ST on 16 December 1971, by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh
Aurora, General Officer Commanding-in-chief of Eastern Command of the Indian Army and Lieutenant General A.
A. K. Niazi, Commander of Pakistani forces in East Pakistan.

In a thesis written by Admiral Shariff in 2010, Admiral Shariff wrote that "the generals in Air Force and Army, were
blaming each other for their failure whilst each of them projected them as hero of the war who fought well and

inflicted heavy casualties on the advancing Indians". At the end, each general officers in the Air Force and Army

r?Ri
placed General Niazi's incompetency and failure as responsible for causing the war, Sharif concluded. Sharif also

noted that:

The initial military success {Searchlight and Barisal) in regaining the law and order situation in East-Pakistan
in March of 1971 was misunderstood as a complete success.... In actuality, the law and order situation
deteriorated with time, particularly after September of the same year when the population turned increasingly
against the [Pakistan] Armed Forces as well as the [Yahya's military] government. The rapid increase in the
number of troops though bloated the overall strength, however, [it] did not add to our fighting strength to the

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 182

extent that was required. A sizeable proportion of the new additions were too old, inexperienced or
unwilling....

rofil

— Admiral Mohammad Sharif, Commander of Eastern Naval Command,

References

[I] http://www.paknavy.gov.pk/history.htm

[2] Pakistan Intelligence, Security Activities & Operations Handbook By IBP USA

[3] India's Quest for Security: defence policies, 1947-1965 By Lome John Kavic, 1967, University of California Press, pp 190

[4] Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, p 135

[5] Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl34

[6] Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl35

[7] Bangladesh at War, Shafiullah, Maj. Gen. K.M. Bir Uttam, p 21 1

[8] IAF claim of PAF Losses

[9] Mihir K. Roy (1995) War in the Indian Ocean, Spantech & Lancer. ISBN 978-1-897829-1 1-0

[10] "End of an era: INS Vikrant's final farewell" (http://www.rediff.com/news/jan/09vikran.htm). 2009. . Retrieved 2011.

[II] Till, Geoffrey (2004). Seapower: a guide for the twenty-first century. Great Britain: Frank Cass Publishers, p. 179. ISBN 0-7146-8436-8.
Retrieved 2010-05-28.

[12] Harry, B. (2001). "The Sinking of PNS Ghazi: The bait is taken." (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-2/harry.html).

Bharat Rakhsak. . Retrieved 201 1.
[13] Shariff, Admiral (retired) Mohammad, Admiral's Diary, ppl40
[14] Operation Jackpot, Mahmud, Sezan, p 14
[15] Roy, Admiral Mihir K. (1995). War in the Indian Ocean (http://books.google.com/books?id=Tqr8r7EB18wC&pg=PA218&

dq=admiral+mohammad+shariff&hl=en&ei=KFjyTsLU04SjiALD64ynCQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=book-thumbnail&resnum=4&

ved=0CEEQ6wEwAw#v=onepage&q=admiral mohammad shariff&f=false). United States: Lancer's Publishers and Distributions.

pp. 218-230. ISBN 1-897829-11-6. .
[16] Till, Geoffry (2004). Sea Power: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 (http://books.google.com/books?id=ZcejlMRYNAAC&pg=PA179&

dq=PNS+Ghazi&ei=LKdDSKG0H4KijgGslqG-BQ&sig=9YcFuLJttkAY3wIH965XTx6eUlY#v=onepage&q&f=false). Frank Class

Publishers, pp. 179. ISBN 0-7146-5542-2. .
[17] http://www.paffalcons.com/gallery/aviation-art/syed-hussaini/trauma-and-reconstruction.php
[18] http ://www. globalsecurity. org/ military/world/ pakistan/air- force-combat.htm
[19] "NAVAL OPERATIONS IN THE WESTERN NAVAL COMMAND" (http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971

wncl.htm). Indian Navy. .
[20] Harry, B. (Wednesday, 07 July 2004). "Operation Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/

NAVY/History/ 197 lWar/44- Attacks-On-Karachi.html). History 1971 India-Pakistan War. Bharat Rakhsak. .
[21] "Our superiority will prevail" (http://in.rediff.com/news/2002/jan/09nad.htm). .
[22] "Bangladeshi War of Independence and Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 " (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/

indo-pak_1971.htm). GlobalSecurity.org. 2000. . Retrieved 2011.
[23] "China's pearl in Pakistan's waters" (http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/GC04Df06.html). Asia Times. March 4, 2005. .

Retrieved 27 October 201 1.
[24] "Blockade From the Seas" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/Banerjee.html). . Retrieved 16 October 2011.
[25] "Spectrum" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/bookl.htm). The Tribune. Sunday, January 11, 2004. . Retrieved 3

November 2011.
[26] Singh, Sukhwant (2009). India's Wars Since Independence (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=jlVawuyUS-cC&lpg=PA431&

0ts=EpR51a2plW&dq=Well old boy, this happens in war.I am sorry your ships have been sunk&pg=PA480#v=onepage&q&f=false).

Lancer Publishers,, pp. 480. ISBN 978-1-935501-13-8. .
[27] "History" (http://www.indiandefence.com/indian-navy/). Indian Navy. Indian Defence. . Retrieved 27 October 201 1.
[28] Staff Report. "Excerpt: How the East was lost: Excerpted with permission from" (http://www.dawn.com/2010/10/24/

excerpt-how-the-east-was-lost.html). Dawn Newspapers (Admira's Diary:). Dawn Newspapers and Admiral's Diary. . Retrieved 21 December

2011.

183

Air operations

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971

East Pakistan Air Operations incorporate the interdiction, air defence, ground support, and logistics missions
flown by the Indian Air Force and the Bangladesh Air Force in support of the advancing Mitro Bahini (called
Operation Cactus Lilly) in the eastern theatre of the Indo-Pakistani conflict of 1971. Although the first of the
engagements between the opposing airpowers occurred before the formal declaration of hostilities, the events
described below include only those conducted after the declaration of war. Indian Air force also helped the Mukti
Bahini form a formation of light aircraft called Kilo flight, which was manned and serviced by Bengali pilots and
technicians who had defected from the Pakistan Air Force. This unit had launched attacks on targets in Bangladesh
on December 3, 1971, prior to the start of formal combat between India and Pakistan.

Background

The Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 was one of the defining conflicts which led to the birth of the new nation of
Bangladesh. The engagements between the Mitro Bahini against the Pakistani Army lasted a short but intense 14
days, between 3 December and 16 December 1971. The speedy conclusion was only possible because the objectives
set by the Mitro Bahini in the east were achieved in that time. This was only possible due to excellent co-ordination
between the Indian Army, Air Force, and the Navy and the Mukti Bahini.

Although the western theatre saw engagements that have defined the rules of 20th century warfare, including the
Battle of Longewala, Operation Trident, as well as Battle of the bases between the two rival Air Forces, the eastern
theatre would be marked by a near total domination by the Indian Forces and the Mitro Bahini. Two major reasons
stand out, the first and major was the fact that the Bengali population and the Awami League led resistance had
already greatly weakened the Pakistani Forces. The second, and possibly equally important, is the total air
supremacy that the IAF came to achieve within the opening days of the war.

The Eastern Theater: Historical Background

East Pakistan saw no air combat when Pakistan and India came to blows over Kashmir in 1947, although both
countries possessed functional air forces. All Pakistani air assets were deployed in West Pakistan at the time, and
India also concentrated on the Western front as well. India began upgrading its air capabilities on its eastern border
after the war— in 1958 the Eastern operational group was formed in Kolkata, which was upgraded into a command
the following year. Following the Sino-Indian War of 1962, the Eastern Air command HQ shifted to Shillong and
extensive efforts to increase its operational capabilities (in terms of number of squadrons and modernization of its
warplanes and operational infrastructure) began, as added emphasis was given to countering any possible Chinese
threat. In contrast, Pakistan High Command posted only 1 squadron of 12 F-86 Canadair Sabres in East Pakistan.
The Sabres were deployed at Dhaka on October 1964, while PAF infrastructure development in the province was
largely ignored.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 184

1965 Indo-Pakistan War: Eastern Theater

Air forces of both countries actively launched attacks against each other during the Indo-Pakistan War of 1965 in the
eastern theater. The IAF bombed airfields and airstrips located in East Pakistan (at Chittagong, Dhaka, Lalmanurhat
and Jessore) and the PAF managed to launch two celebrated raids on the Indian Air Force base at Kalaikudda, West
Bengal. The PAF raids, which took place on September 7, destroyed several Canberra bombers and Vampire aircraft
on the ground while the IAF claimed 2 aerial kills (Pakistani sources record 1 F-86 lost). The first PAF Kalaikudda
raid by 5 Sabres had achieved total surprise but the second wave was opposed by Indian interceptors, leading to the
loss. The PAF also launched attacks on Bagdogra on September 10 and Barrackpur on September 14, with varying
results. The IAF did hit back with airstrikes on Dacca, Jessore and Lalmunirhat, but failed to destroy any aircraft.
Mid-air interceptions and dogfights rarely happened, and barring some skirmishing between the EPR and BSF along
the border, the air forces of both countries provided most of the combat activities in the eastern theater during the
1965 War. The final tally was 12 Indian aircraft destroyed on the ground (PAF claim is 21 aircraft destroyed) and 2
Pakistani Sabres shot down (PAF records one aircraft lost) and 1 PAF Sabre lost due to accident. Following the
war, the IAF continued its steady growth in combat capacity, while Pakistan boosted its squadron strength to 20
planes, although it neglected to expand its operational infrastructure substantially.

PAF during Operation Searchlight in 1971

PAF had 20 Canadair Sabres (No 14. Squadron Tail-choppers), three T-33 trainers and two helicopters stationed in
East Pakistan, while army aviation squadron No.4 had eight helicopters present for service. PAF operational
effectiveness suffered a little because most Bengali pilots and technicians had been grounded during the political
unrest in March 1971. When Operation Searchlight was launched to quell the Awami League led political
movement, PAF contribution was crucial to its success.

Pakistan high command had been using four C-130 Hercules planes and the entire PIA fleet was employed to
transfer troops to East Pakistan and after the war started, two entire infantry division in an operation dubbed Great
Fly-In was airlifted to East Pakistan from West Pakistan between March 26 — May 2. The Pakistani airplanes had
to make the trip to East Pakistan via Sri Lanka as overflights over India had been banned since February 1971.
Moving two entire infantry divisions, which were sorely needed to bolster the army in East Pakistan where it was
facing stiff opposition in a span of two weeks was a vital factor in sustaining the army operation. Most Pakistani
army bases in East Pakistan had been cut off from each other since March 29 and Helicopters and C-130 planes were
used to ferry troops and munitions to army bases cut off from supplies and surrounded by the Mukti Bahini, and this
proved crucial for the initial survival and ultimate success of the Pakistani troops during the early phases of the
battle. Helicopters also evacuated the Pakistani wounded from isolated bases, acted as artillery spotters, flew

reconnaissance missions over hostile territory and dropped combat troops off in remote places to outflank and cutoff
Mukti Bahini positions. The PAF enjoyed total air supremacy during March— November as the Mukti Bahini
lacked both planes and air defense capability to counter their efforts, and flew nearly 100 to 170 sorties between
March— November in support of the army. Pakistani forces defeated the Bengali resistance by mid-May 1971 and
occupied the province by June, 1971. The PAF had requisitioned and jury -rigged crop dusters and light civilian
aircraft to augment its recon and ground attack capabilities during this period.

PAF preparations for Indian intervention

Pakistan high command was fully aware that the IAF considerably outnumbered the PAF eastern detachment and
they held the qualitative edge as well in the eastern theater. Pakistani planners had anticipated the PAF being

ro]

neutralized with 24 hours of the IAF commencing combat operations over East Pakistan. There was only one fully
functional airbase (at Tejgaon near Dhaka) in East Pakistan, all the satellite air bases in the province lacked the
service facilities for sustaining prolonged operations. The PAF had plans to deploy a squadron of Shenyang F-6
planes at Kurmitola (Now Shahjalal International Airport) in 1971, these planes were temporarily deployed but

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 185

ultimately withdrawn because, although the runway was functional at that base, the base was not fully functional to
support the planes, and the lack of infrastructure meant PAF could not deploy additional planes. This
marginalization or neglect of East Pakistan defense since 1948 had hamstrung the PAF Eastern contingent in 1971,
when its capabilities was put to the test. Pakistan deployed no additional air defence assets other than the one light
Ack-Ack regiment and a few batteries to assist the PAF in 1971. The 6th light Ack Ack guarded Dhaka, 46th
Light Ack-Ack battery was in Chittagong, and elements of the 43rd Ack-Ack were present in areas around East
Pakistan. The caliber of the regiment was not enhanced to heavy, and no S AMs were deployed in East Pakistan. The
only long range radar (Russian P-35 model) was also taken to West Pakistan along with all the C-130 Hercules
planes. Several Dummies were deployed at the airbases to deceive the IAF. To augment the short radar cover, which
could now provide only a 3-5 minute warning to the planes, observers were deployed around the country armed with
radios and telephones. They in turn were exposed to Mukti Bahini attacks, which reduced their effectiveness. The
IAF had flown reconnaissance flights over East Pakistan since June 1971 and had engaged their opponents earlier in
the east than they did in the west, having clashed with PAF over the Salient of Boyra in West Bengal on 22
November. Between then and 3 December 1971, there were no engagements of the two airforces. Pakistanis had lost
3 planes (2 shot down and 1 damaged) on November 22 over Boyra, so were down to 17 operational Sabres in
December 1971 as no replacement aircraft were sent from West Pakistan.

IAF Operations in 1971

The IAF had assembled units from the Central and Eastern Air commands in Eastern command bases for the
campaign by December 1971. The Central Air Command HQ was located at Allahabad while the Eastern Command
was HQed in Shillong, so Air Marshal P.C Lai created an advanced HQ at Fort William to better coordinate matters

ri2i

after a consultation with Lt. Gen. Jacob, COS Army Eastern Command. in addition to redrawing the operational
boundaries of the respective commands for the campaign. Several Central Command units were temporarily housed
in Eastern Air Command bases for the duration of the campaign.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971

186

Eastern Air Command Order of Battle 1971

Western Sector:
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[13]

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Location of IAF, PAF and BAF units on December 1971 in and around
Bangladesh. Some unit locations are not shown. Map not to exact scale

• No. 22 Squadron (Swifts): Folland Gnat MK 1
Dumdum, then Kalaikudda, then Calcutta (WC
Sikand)

• No. 30 Squadron (Charging Rhinos): Mig 21
FL — Kalaikudda (WC Chudda) - Fighter
Interceptor

• No. 14 Squadron (Bulls): Hawker Hunter F.
MK 56 - Kalaikudda (WC Sundersan) - Fighter

• No. 16 Squadron (Rattlers): Canberra -
Kalaikudda - (WC Gautum) - Bomber

• No. 221 Squadron (Valiants): Su-7 BMK -
Fighter/Bomber

• No. 7 Squadron (Battle Axes): Hawker Hunter
F. MK 56 and 2 F. MK 1 - Bagdogra (WC
Ceolho, then WC Suri). The squadron was
moved Chamb after December 12.

• No. 104 (Alluotte 3) and No. 104 (Mi-4) Heli
units

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North East and North Western Sector: (Areas

to the East of Jamuna River)

CO: Air Vice Marshal Devasher HQ: Shillong

• No. 17 Squadron (Golden Arrows): Hawker
Hunter F MK 56 - Hashimara (WC Chatrath)

No 37 Squadron (Black Panthers): Hawker Hunter F MK 10 - Hashimara (WC Kaul)
No. 4 Squadron (Oorials): Mig 21 FL Gauhati (WC JV Gole)
No. 24 Squadron (Hunting Hawks): Folland Gnat Gauhati (WC Bhadwar)
No. 15 Squadron (Flying Lancers): Folland Gnat — Gauhati then Agortala (WC Singh)
No. 28 Squadron (First Supersonics): Mig 21FL Gauhati (WC Bishnu)
No. 105 (Mi-4) and 121 (Alouette III) Helicopter Squadrons — Agartola

Mukti Bahini airforce: Kilo Flight

The Indian Army was helping the Mukti Bahini through Operation Jackpot since May 1971, while the Indian navy
had helped set up the Bengali Naval commando unit and had provided command staff for the Bengali gunboats
which were busy mining riverine crafts and harassing merchant marine operations in East Pakistan. The IAF could
not come to grips with the PAF until formal hostilities commenced, but the Bengali airmen joined the act when 9

Bengali pilots and 50 technicians, formerly of the PAF and serving with the Mukti Bahini in various capacity were

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gathered for a special mission on 28 September 1971 at Dimapur in Nagaland. A number of Bengali civilian

pilots from the PIA later joined this group. Indian civilian authorities and the IAF donated 1 DC-3 Dakota (gifted by

the Maharaja of Jodhpor), 1 Twin Otter plane and 1 Alouette III helicopter for the new born Bangladesh Air Force,

which was to take advantage of the lack of night fighting capability of the PAF to launch hit and run attacks on

sensitive targets inside Bangladesh from the air. The Bengali rank and file fixed up the WWII vintage runway at

Dimapur, then added began rigging the aircraft for combat duty. The Dakota was modified to carry 5000 lb

(unknown operator: u'strong' kg) bombs, but for technical reasons it was used to ferry Bangladesh government

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 187

personnel, Captain Abdul Khalek, Captain Alamgir Satter and Captain Abdul Mukit, all destined to earn the Bir
Pratik award, piloted the Dakota. The Helicopter was rigged to fire 14 rockets from pylons attached to its side and
had .303 Browning machine guns attached to it, in addition to having 1-inch (unknown operator: u'strong 1 mm)
steel plate welded to its floor for extra protection. Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmood, Flight Lieutenant Bodiul Alam
and Captain Shahabuddin, all of whom later won the Bir Uttam award, operated the helicopter. The Otter boasted 7
rockets under each of its wings and could launch ten 25 pound bombs. The bombs were rolled out by hand through a
makeshift door. Flight Lt. Shamsul Alam, along with Captains Akram Ahmed and Sharfuddin Ahmad flew the Otter,
all three were later awarded Bir Uttam for their service in 1971. This tiny force was dubbed Kilo Flight, the first
fighting formation of Bangladesh Air force.

Under the command of Group Captain A.K. Khandkar and Squadron Leader Sultan Mahmood, intense training took
place in night flying and instrumental navigation. After 2 months of training, the formation was activated for combat.
The first sortie was scheduled to take place on November 28, but was moved back 6 days to December 2, 1971. The
Otter (Flown by Flight Lt. Shamsul Alam, co pilot FL Akram) was moved to Kailashsahar, and was prepared for a
mission against targets in Chittagong. The Helicopter (Pilot Flight Lt. Sultan Mahmood and Fl. Lt. Bodiul Alam)
was to hit Narayangang, flying from Teliamura, near Agartola.

In the early hours of December 3, 1971, the twin otter and the helicopter took off from their respective bases and hit
the oil depots at Naryanganj and Chittagong, which the Mukti Bahini guerrillas had been unable to sabotage due
to the tight security. Ironically, the PAF initiated Operation Chengis Khan on the same night, and the IAF
commenced offensive operations in the East from December 3, 1971. Kilo flight would in total fly 12 missions in

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1971, hitting various targets in Chittagong, Naryanganj and Bhairab. The formation base was moved from
Dimapur to Shamshernagar after it was liberated on December 4, then finally was moved to Agartala before the end
of the war. The BAF contingent was present in Dhaka when the surrender ceremony took place on December 16,
1971.

IAF commences Operations: December 3, 1971

Following the preemptive strike by the PAF on its airfields in the western sector, the IAF went into action on the
midnight of 3 December 1971. However, the western air campaign was, at least in the initial days, limited to striking
PAF forward bases and providing ground support, but was not aimed at achieving air supremacy. In the east,
however, faced with only the No. 14 Squadron defending the whole sector, the Eastern Air Command was given the
task to achieve total air dominance, which ultimately it did.

On 3 December Pakistan launched what was intended to be a decisive pre-emptive strike against Indian airfields, but
managed only 50 sorties. The IAF hit back with retaliatory strikes.

The PAF's handful of Sabres at Tezgaon near Dacca in East Pakistan put up a useful resistance against all out attacks
by Indian fighers from 4 December. Between 4 and 1 1 of the attackers were claimed shot down in air combat, with
17 more lost to ground fire. Five Sabres were shot down in air combat. On 6 December, an IAF attack cratered the
runways at both Tezgaon and Kurmitola, effectively putting them out of action for the rest of the campaign. Apart
from the IAF squadrons deployed in the East Bengal, India's sole aircraft-carrier INS Vikrant (with its Sea Hawk
fighter bombers and Breguet Alize ASW aircraft) mounted attacks against the civil airport at Cox's bazaar and
Chittagong harbor. The embryo Bangladesh air force, with three DHC Otters (fitted with machine guns) of Mukti
Bahini Air Wing made an appearance on 7 December. Indian airborne troops, in battalion strength, made an assault
on Dacca on 11 December usnig An-12s, and Fairchild C-119Gs. This was preceded on 7 December by a heliborne

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infantry assault by two companies, in some nine Mil Mi-4s and Mi-8s, escorted by 'gunship' Alouttes.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 188

3—4 December

Canberra bombers struck Tejgaon repeatedly on the night of 3 December. The PAF No. 14 operated only Sabres
which lacked night fighting capability, so the bombers were opposed only by the guns of the Pakistani light ack-ack
regiment. By the morning of 4 December, however, strike missions against Tejgaon were assigned to Hunters of the
No. 7, No. 14 sqn, No. 17 sqn and No. 37 sqn, Su-7s (No. 221 Sqn) and MiG-21s (No. 28 sqn).

The first daytime raids in East Pakistan were flown by Hunters of No. 17 Sqn and these were given top cover by four
MiG-21s from No. 28 Sqn. It proved unnecessary, the Hunters shot down one Sabre when intercepted before the
rendezvous took place. No. 14 sqn also struck Kurmitola AFB, hitting the Hangars and Installations with rockets. By
the afternoon, Hunter's would strike Narayangunj fuel depots. Hunters from No. 14 Sqn also struck Chittagong
Harbour on the morning of 4 December. In an afternoon strike on Tejgaon by MiGs from 28 Sqn, a Twin otter was
destroyed on the ground.

For the interceptors sent up to challenge the strikes, PAF was to suffer the loss of three Sabres in dog fights over
Dhaka, two to Hunters striking Kumitola. Of these, Wg Cdr S M Ahmed and Fit. Lt. Saeed ejected safely over the
village of Ghazipur, but were not found by search parties and were listed as "missing" for the duration of the war.
Later reports would suggest that both pilots were killed by hostile local populace.

Though not programmed or required to fly, Ahmad had insisted — in keeping with the PAF's tradition
of its seniors leading in combat — and was soon in the thick of battle with 4 Hunters, joined minutes
later by some MiG-21s and Su-7s. In the melee, the Hunters' leader shot down Ahmad's F-86, forcing
him to eject 5 miles from Kurmitola; despite an air and ground search he was never found. Rashidi, in
the meanwhile, successfully extricated himself from the 'one-versus-several' situation just as another
pair of PAF F-86s, comprising Sdn. Ldr. Afzaal and Fit. Lt. Saeed, was engaging 3 Hunters, a few miles
away. Both Afzaal and Saeed were immediately set upon by another Hunter and was himself shot down.
Only minutes later Afzaal had avenged this loss by chasing a MiG-21 and shooting it down. Although
Saeed had ejected safely, he too was never found; reportedly both Saeed and Ahmad were taken away
by Mukti supporters.

The last of the Sabres lost that day was to an afternoon strike on Narayangunj, Fg Off Sajjad Noor was shot down
while attempting to engage a strike by Hunters from No. 14Sqn. Noor ejected safely over the village of Zinjira and
was later rescued.

The IAF also suffered some of its heaviest losses on these missions, losing six Hunters and one Su-7. No. 7 sqn, on a
strike mission against an ammunition train at Lai Munir Hat, would suffer one Pilot- Fit Lt A R Da Costa KIA, along

with the loss of two Hunters- both hit by fierce ground fire and crashing in Indian territory. One of the pilots of the

n si
stricken planes, Sqn Ldr S K Gupta safely ejected at Bagdogra. No. 14 Sqn also lost two Hunters on the day to

no]

ack ack. Both the pilots, Sqn Ldr K D Mehra and Fit Lt K C Tremenhere, ejected safely. Tremenhere was taken
POW while Mehra managed to evade capture and get back to Indian territory. The highest price of the day was
however, paid by No. 37 Sqn, which suffered the death of two pilots- Sqn Ldr S B Samanta and Fg Off S G

no] r 1 on

Khonde. No. 221 Sqn was to suffer one Su-7 shot down with the pilot, Sqn Ldr V. Bhutani taken POW.

IAF Canberra planes had also struck Chittagong airport, oil tanks and refinery on December 4, and lost 2 planes but
managed to damage the installations. In total the PAF had flown 32 operational sorties against IAF incursions on
December 4 and had expanded 30,000 rounds of ammunition, while the ground based weapons had fired 70,000
rounds, the highest expenditure per day per aircraft of ammunition in the history of the PAF. Pakistani authorities
claimed between 10 to 12 IAF planes destroyed, and took measures to conserve ammunition in anticipation of a long
war.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 189

5—7 December

People of Dhaka witnessed thrilling low-level dogfights throughout 4 and 5 December. The IAF concentrated in
attacking the aircraft on the ground. However, for the dear price paid, it failed to cause significant damage to the
PAF assets in well-dispersed and camouflaged locations. IAF also flew ground support missions, and the lessening
pressure meant that the PAF managed to fly some ground support missions over Comilla and other areas. In total 20
operational sorties were flown by the Sabres, and 12,000 rounds of ammunition were used up during December 5 by

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the PAF. By the evening of 5 December the IAF realised that a change of tactic was necessary. The Ack-Ack
regiment managed to defend the airbase during 5 December and the night of the early hours of the 6th against Indian
attacks successfully.

On the morning of 6 December four MiG-21s (No. 28 Sqn), flying from Gauhati at very low level, climbed up to
5,000 m and dived at 900 km/h, hitting Tejgaon airstrip with 500 kg bombs, scoring several hits on the runway, and
rendering it unusable for operations. The airport was without air cover at that time, as a PAF ground support mission
had just landed and the duty flight had not taken off. Two craters, ten meters deep and twenty meters wide,
separated by 1200 meters had rendered the runway unusable (the bombs were BETAB-500, anti-airstrip ordnance).
However, Kurmitola was to remain operational till the morning of 7 December, when Mig-21s of No. 28 Sqn again
hit that runway. No. 7 Sqn was pulled out of the eastern ops on the 6 December to help the army in the west.
Repeated attack by MiG-21s and Hunters of No. 14 and No. 28 however, kept the runway cratered. An aviation
website noted : "A notable fact remains that the MiG-21FL was neither as easy to fly nor to operate in combat under
conditions the IAF had to expect in the case of a new war with Pakistan. It was designed as simple point-defence
fighter-interceptor that was to operate under close GCI-control and attack its targets from the rear hemisphere with
R-3S (ASCC-Code AA-2 Atoll) heat-seeking missiles. However, pleased with the speed and handling of the MiGs
during operational conversions, Indian pilots trained intensively and gained not only considerable confidence, but
also expertise. The Indians were to use it as an air superiority fighter as well as fighter bomber over extended ranges
and well inside the enemy airspace, with minimal or no GCI-support at all. "

Effectively, MiG-21 had success as interdiction-strike aircraft, taking-out an important air base with only eight
sorties. The results of the IAF's assault was that by 7 December, the PAF in the East was effectively grounded. The
IAF also bombed other airfields including the abandoned WWII airfields of Comilla, Lai Munir Hat and Shamsher
Nagar throughout the war, denying their use to PAF planes that may be moved by road, as well as to any external
aerial reinforcement. Jessore Airfield had come under Mitro Bahini control by this time, so it was spared. Pakistani
authorities made repeated attempts to repair the runways. Airforce and army engineers, helped by civilian workers,
worked round the clock during Dec 6-7, and by 4:50 AM Dec 7, only 8 hours of respite was needed to regain fully
operational status at Tejgaon, However, the IAF hit the base on the 7th, and it was estimated 36 hours of work
without further damage was needed to make the base operational again. The IAF ensured no such respite took place.
In desperation, it was suggested that the broad streets at second capital be used as runways, but technical problems
ruled out that possibility — grounding the PAF Sabres forever in East Pakistan.

PAF fighter pilots were sent to West Pakistan via Burma on 8 December and 9 December when it became clear at
least 36 hours of uninterrupted work was needed to fix the runways and the ack-ack units were unable to keep the

IAF away. Pakistani authorities claimed that between 4—15 December the IAF had lost 22 to 24 aircraft, 7 to the

T221
PAF and the rest to ack-ack units. The IAF records 19 aircraft lost in East Pakistan, 3 in air combat, 6 to accidents

T231
and the rest to ack-ack while 5 Sabres were shot down by IAF planes. After the liberation of Dhaka, 13 airframes

T241
were found at the Tejgaon airport by the Mitro Bahini in various states of sabotage. 2 T-33 trainers were

inoperable, but 8 Sabres were made operational later. 5 of them were incorporated in the Bangladesh Air Force in

1972. The Pakistan HQ had issued orders to blow up the aircraft, but Air Commodore Enam had pointed out that the

sight of burning planes would demoralize the Pakistani troops defending Dacca. PAF personnel destroyed the

ammunition stocks and sabotaged the electric and hydraulic systems of the aircraft on 15 December.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 190

The PAF continued to use helicopters at night to fly reinforcements to remote bases and airlift munitions. Prior to the
surrender of Pakistan Eastern Command on 16 December the Army Aviation squadron, commanded by Lt. Col.
Liaquat Bokhari, escaped to Burma with selected personnel, including Maj. Gen. Rahim Khan (GOC 39th Ad Hoc
division).

Operations in Support of Ground Forces

With the PAF in the east effectively neutralised, the IAF could now concentrate in supporting their advancing army.
Movements of Pakistani troops during day time came to a virtual halt due to relentless IAF air attack. Ferries across
major river crossings were sunk by the IAF thus denying the Pak army its line of retreat to Dhaka. On 7 December,
INS Vikrant, the navy's sole aircraft carrier at the time, joined the operation. Sea Hawks operating from the deck of
Vikrant struck Chittagong harbour, Cox's Bazar and Barisal. Whatever remained of the Pakistani Navy was
destroyed or sunk. The airfields in Cox's Bazar, Chiringa and Feni were made inoperative.

On 10 December IAF helilifted troops of the IV Corps from Ashuganj to Raipura and Narsingi in what came to be
termed the Operation Cactus-Lilly (also known as the Helibridge over Meghna). Entire Brigade strengths were
lifted over the River Meghna, allowing the Indian Army to continue their advance in spite of stiff resistance at
Ashuganj, where the retreating Pakistani Army also blew up the Bridge.

To the south of this area near Chandpur, the 39 division (CO: General Rahim Khan) HQ at had requested evacuation
by river on December 8. Under the escort of a gunboat, the flotilla, made up of local launches sailed in the early
hours of December 10. The IAF spotted and bombed the ships, which were either sunk or beached themselves and
failed to reach Dhaka. The survivors later were evacuated by ships operating at night and by helicopters.

On 11 December, India airdropped Para Bn Gp 130 in the now famous Tangail airdrop. The operation involved
An-12, C-119s, 2 Caribous and Dakotas from 11 sqn and 48 Sn. In total, about 1000 troops were airdropped. The
only hitch was one paratrooper who a static line hangup. Gnats from No. 22 sqn provided top cover for the operation,
which ultimately went unhindered. Also on the 11th of December three converted An-12s from the No.44 Squadron
struck the Jaydebpur Ordnance factory in East Pakistan.

On the morning of 14 December, a message was intercepted by Indian Intelligence of a high-level meeting of the
civilian administration in East Pakistan and a decision was made to mount an attack. Within 15 minutes interception
of the message, a strike was launched against Dhaka. Armed with tourist guide maps of the city, four Mig 21s of No.
28 Sqn got Airborne. A few minutes had passed after the meeting had started, when the IAF MIG's came screaming
& blasted the Governors House with 57 mm rockets in the first, thereby ripping the massive roof of the main hall and
turning the building into a smouldering wreck. The Governor of East Pakistan, Mr. A H Malik, was so shocked with
the incident that he resigned on the spot by writing on a piece of paper and thereby renouncing all ties with the West
Pakistani administration, to take refuge at the Red Cross Center in Dhaka.

Fate of Pakistan Navy in East Pakistan

Pakistan Forces GHQ had declined a substantial naval contingent for the defense of East Pakistan for two reasons:
they had inadequate ships to challenge the Indian navy on both fronts and the PAF in the east was not deemed strong
enough to protect the ships from Indian airpower (The IAF and Indian Navy air arm). The fate of Pakistani naval
vessels in December was ample proof of the soundness of this decision and the repercussion of neglecting East
Pakistan defense infrastructure (the reason PAF could only station 1 squadron of planes there). Pakistan Eastern

Command had planned to fight the war without the navy and faced with a hopeless task against overwhelming odds,

T271
the navy planned to remain in the ports when war broke out.

The Pakistan Navy had 4 Gunboats (PNS Jessore, Rajshahi, Comilla, and Sylhet), all 345 ton vessels capable of
attaining a maximum speed of 20 knots (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km/h), were crewed by 29 sailors and fitted
with 40/60 mm cannons and machine guns in East Pakistan. 1 patrol boat ("Balaghat") and 17 armed boats (armed

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 191

with 12.7mm/20mm guns and/or .50 or.303 Browning machine guns) in addition to various civilian owned Pakistan
forces requisitioned and jury rigged boats armed with various weapons were also part of the Pakistan naval

T2S1

contingent. The improvised armed boats were adequate for patrolling and anti-insurgency ops but hopelessly out

of place in conventional warfare. Before the start of hostilities in December PNS Jessore was in Khulna with 4 other

boats, PNS Rajshahi, Comilla and Balaghat was at Chittagong. PNS Sylhet was undergoing repairs at a dry-dock

[291
near Dhaka. The outbreak of hostilities on December 3 found most of the boats scattered around the province.

Indian aircraft attacked the Rajshahi and Comilla near Chittagong on the 4 December, the Rajshahi was damaged
and the Comilla sunk. The Balaghat, which was not attacked, rescued the Comilla crew and the surviving ships
returned to Chittagong. On December 5, Indian planes sank two patrol boats in Khulna. The PNS Sylhet was
destroyed on December 6 and the Balaghat on December 9 by Indian aircraft. PNS Jessore, which had withdrawn
from Khulna to Dacca, was destroyed on December 11 while escorting boats evacuating Pakistani troops from
Chandpur. PNS Rajshahi was repaired, and under the command of Lt. Commander Shikder Hayat managed to evade
the Indian blockade and reach Malaysia before the surrender on December 16. From there it sailed to Karachi and
continued to serve in the Pakistan navy.

Blue on Blue: Tragedy near Khulna

Indian Army Eastern Command had ordered Bangladesh Navy gunboats BNS Palash and BNS Padma, accompanied
by INS Panvel under the overall command of Commander M.N Samant, to sail to Chalna port. These ships, carrying
Bengali seamen and Indian command crew, had been operating against Pakistani shipping since November, and

under the advise of Indian Eastern Air command, had painted their superstructure yellow to avoid misidentification,

nil
which had been reported back to Eastern air-command. This task force sailed on December 6, entered Mangla at

7:30 Am on December 10 and took over the port facility. Commander Samant knew that Khulna was a IAF target

but decided to push on anyway. Around 11:30 AM, when the 3 ships were closing in on Khulna dockyard, 3

airplanes dived on them. Commander Samant recognized the IAF planes and ordered the ships to hold fire; all 3

ships were strafed and sunk by the planes. 3 Bengali Naval commandos and 7 Bengali sailors were killed, 6 naval

commandos, 1 BSF JCO, 3 Indian officers and 7 Bengali seamen were injured. Indian Navy gave 14 awards

(including 3 Mahavir Chakras, and 6 Vir Chakras) to the Indian rank and file involved in this incident. Bengali

Seaman Ruhul Amin, who tried to save MV Palash despite being wounded and ordered to abandon ship, and later

had died under torture, was awarded 'Bir Shershtra" by Bangladesh government. 21 Indian and Bengali sailors

became POWs.

The IAF was to continue flying interdiction missions for the remainder of the war in, shooting up ammunition dumps
and other fixed installations. Gnats and Sukhoi Su-7s flew many missions in support of army units as they moved
swiftly towards Dhaka, delivering ordnance such as iron bombs to take out enemy bunkers which occasionally posed
an obstacle to advancing infantry. Canberras repeatedly struck Jessore forcing the enemy to abandon this strategic
city. The IAF also was prepared to hit any Chinese incursions into Indian territory in the eastern Himalayas. As it
turned out, the Chinese did not stir.

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971

192

Notes

[1] http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1965War/Appendix2.html

[2] Islam, Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions, p315

[3] Salik, Siddiq, "Witness to Surrender" p87, p90

[4] Qureshi, Maj. Gen. Hakeem A., The 1971 Indo-Pak War: A Soldiers Narrative p55, p58

[5] Ali Khan, Maj. Gen. Rao Farman, When Pakistan Got Divided, p88

[6] Salik, Siddiq, "Witness to Surrender" p82

[7] Islam, Rafiqul, "A Tale of Millions", pl22, p213

[8] Salik, Siddiq, "Witness to Surrender" pl32

[9] Salik, Siddiq, "Witness to Surrender" pl23

[10
[11
[12
[13
[14
[15
[16
[17

[18

[19
[20
[21

[22
[23
[24
[25
[26
[27
[28
[29
[30
[31

Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, pl32

Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, Surrender at Dacca, ppl88

Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, "Surrender At Dacca: Birth of A Nation" p51

http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml

Uddin, Major Nasir, Juddhey Juddhey Swadhinata, ISBN 984-401-455-7, pp247

Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender light aircraft- pl34

Islam, Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions, pl22, p213

The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384-387 ISBN
1-904687-26-1)

Indian Air Force losses in the 1971 War" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War/Appendix2.html).
www.bharat-rakshak.com. . Retrieved 2006-08-23.

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl31

Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, pl31

"India — Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction" (http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml). Tom Cooper & Shais Ali.
www.acig.org. . Retrieved 2006-08-23.

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl32

(http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Misc/Lossl971.html) IAF Losses in the East

http ://www. bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/ 1 97 1 War/Appendix3 .html

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, p209

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender pl75-pl76

Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, pl35

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl33

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl34

Salik, Siddiq, Witness To Surrender, pl35

Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, Surrender at Dacca, p92

References

• Salik, Siddiq (1997). Witness to Surrender. ISBN 984-05-1374-5.

• Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR (2004). Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation. The University Press Limited.
ISBN 984-05-1532-2.

• Qureshi, Maj. Gen. Hakeem Arshad (2003). The Indo Pak War of 1971: A Soldiers Narrative. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-579778-7.

• Islam, Major Rafiqul (2006). A Tale of Millions. Ananna. ISBN 984-412-033-0.

• Ali Khan, Maj. Gen Rao Farman (1992). How Pakistan Got Divided. Jung Publishers (Bengali Translation:
'Bangladesher Janmo' University Press Ltd. 2003). ISBN 9840501577.

193

Surrender

Instrument of Surrender (1971)

The Instrument of Surrender was signed at Ramna Race Course in Dhaka at one past five in the evening (1701
hrs), local time, on December 16, 1971, by Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in
Chief of Eastern Command of the Indian Army and Lieutenant General Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi, Commander of
Pakistani forces in Bangladesh, as the formal act of surrender of all Pakistani forces in erstwhile East Pakistan. Also
present during the ceremony were Lieutenant General JFR Jacob, Chief of Staff of the Eastern Command and
architect of the plan for the capture of Bangladesh, and, the commanders of Indian Naval and Air Forces in the
Eastern Theatre.

The signing of the document ended the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and led to the formation of Bangladesh. The
name of the new country, Bangla Desh (later reduced to a single word), was used in the instrument of surrender,
which declared: "The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan armed forces in Bangla desh to
Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and BANGLA DESH
forces in the Eastern Theatre."

Aurora accepted the surrender without a word, while the crowd on the race course started shouting anti-Niazi and
anti-Pakistan slogans and abuses. Niazi along with a sizeable number of Pakistani soldiers were taken prisoner
(upwards of 90,000). This was the largest number of POWs since World War II and included some government
officials.

Text of the Instrument

"The PAKISTAN Eastern Command agree to surrender all PAKISTAN Armed Forces in BANGLA DESH to
Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and BANGLA
DESH forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all PAKISTAN land, air and naval forces as also all
para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where
they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH
AURORA.

The PAKISTAN Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA
as soon as the instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms
and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General
JAGJIT SINGH AURORA will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender
terms.

Lieutenant-General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA gives a solemn assurance that personnel who surrender shall be
treated with dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with provisions of the GENEVA
Convention and guarantees the safety and well-being of all PAKISTAN military and para-military forces who
surrender. Protection will be provided to foreign nationals, ethnic minorities and personnel of WEST PAKISTAN
origin by the forces under the command of Lieutenant- General JAGJIT SINGH AURORA."

Signed by J.S. Aurora and A.A.K. Niazi on 16 December 1971.

This document can be seen on display in the National Museum in Delhi (as of January 2012)

Instrument of Surrender (1971) 194

In Literature

In Salman Rushdie's novel Midnight's Children, the encounter between the two generals is shown in the chapter Sam
and the Tiger

Sources

INSTRUMENTS OF SURRENDER OF PAKISTANI FORCES IN DACCA [2] Hosted by Ministry of External

T31
Affairs, India Virtual Bangladesh

References

[1] Of betrayal and bungling by Kuldip Nayar (Google cache link) (http://webcache.googleusercontent.com/

search?q=cache:YfijrFpnU_MJ: www. indianexpress.com/res/web/ple/ie/ daily/ 19980203/03450744. html+http://www.indianexpress.
com/res/web/ple/ie/daily/19980203/03450744.html&cd=l&hl=en&ct=clnk&gl=us) - Indian Express 3 February 1998

195

Indo-Pakistani War of 1999

Kargil War

The Kargil War (Hindi: +K'il<?i ^f( kargil yuddh, Urdu: <Sss» J? jLS" kargil jang), also known as the Kargil
conflict, e was an armed conflict between India and Pakistan that took place between May and July 1999 in the
Kargil district of Kashmir and elsewhere along the Line of Control (LOC). The conflict is also referred to as
Operation Vijay (Victory in Hindi) which was the name of the Indian operation to clear the Kargil sector.

The cause of the war was the infiltration of Pakistani soldiers and Kashmiri militants into positions on the Indian side

T21
of the LOC, which serves as the de facto border between the two states. During the initial stages of the war,

Pakistan blamed the fighting entirely on independent Kashmiri insurgents, but documents left behind by casualties

and later statements by Pakistan's Prime Minister and Chief of Army Staff showed involvement of Pakistani

paramilitary forces, led by General Ashraf Rashid. The Indian Army, later on supported by the Indian Air

Force, recaptured a majority of the positions on the Indian side of the LOC infiltrated by the Pakistani troops and
militants. With international diplomatic opposition, the Pakistani forces withdrew from the remaining Indian
positions along the LOC.

The war is one of the most recent examples of high altitude warfare in mountainous terrain, which posed significant
logistical problems for the combating sides. This was only the second direct ground war between any two countries
after they had developed nuclear weapons; it is also the most recent. (India and Pakistan both test-detonated fission
devices in May 1998, though the first Indian nuclear test was conducted in 1974.)

Location

Before the Partition of India in 1947, Kargil was part of the Baltistan district of Ladakh, a sparsely populated region
with diverse linguistic, ethnic and religious groups, living in isolated valleys separated by some of the world's
highest mountains. The First Kashmir War (1947—48) concluded with the LOC bisecting the Baltistan district, with

the town and district of Kargil lying on the Indian side in the Ladakh subdivision of the Indian state of Jammu and

T71
Kashmir. After Pakistan's defeat in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, the two nations signed the Simla Agreement

promising not to engage in armed conflict with respect to that boundary.

The town of Kargil is located 205 km (unknown operator:

u'strong' mi) from Srinagar, facing the Northern Areas across the
LOC. Like other areas in the Himalayas, Kargil has a temperate
climate. Summers are cool with frigid nights, while winters are long
and chilly with temperatures often dropping to -48 °C (-54 °F)

[81

[10]

An Indian national highway (NH ID) connecting Srinagar to Leh cuts
through Kargil. The area that witnessed the infiltration and fighting is a
160 km long stretch of ridges overlooking this only road linking

[21

Srinagar and Leh. The military outposts on the ridges above the

highway were generally around 5,000 metres (16,000 ft) high, with a

few as high as 5,485 metres (18,000 ft). [11] Apart from the district

capital, Kargil, the populated areas near the front line in the conflict

included the Mushko Valley and the town of Drass, southwest of Kargil, as well as the Batalik sector and other areas

northeast of Kargil.

Location of the conflict

Kargil War

196

One of the reasons why Kargil was targeted was that the terrain surrounding it, lent itself to pre-emptive seizure of

ri2i
unoccupied military positions. With tactically vital features and well-prepared defensive posts atop the peaks, a

defender of the high ground would enjoy advantages akin to a fortress. Any attack to dislodge a defender from high

ri3i

ground in mountain warfare requires a far higher ratio of attackers to defenders, and the difficulties would be

ri4i

exacerbated by the high altitude and freezing temperatures.

Kargil is just 173 km (unknown operator: u'strong 1 mi) from the Pakistani-controlled town of Skardu, which was
capable of providing logistical and artillery support to Pakistani combatants.

Background

After the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, there had been a long period
with relatively few direct armed conflicts involving the military forces
of the two neighbors - notwithstanding the efforts of both nations to
control the Siachen Glacier by establishing military outposts on the
surrounding mountains ridges and the resulting military skirmishes in
the 1980s. During the 1990s, however, escalating tensions and
conflict due to separatist activities in Kashmir, some of which were
supported by Pakistan, as well as the conducting of nuclear tests by
both countries in 1998, led to an increasingly belligerent atmosphere.
In an attempt to defuse the situation, both countries signed the Lahore
Declaration in February 1999, promising to provide a peaceful and
bilateral solution to the Kashmir conflict.

During the winter of 1998 -1999, some elements of the Pakistani Armed Forces were covertly training and sending
Pakistani troops and paramilitary forces, some allegedly in the guise of mujahideen, into territory on the Indian side
of the LOC. The infiltration was code named "Operation Badr"; its aim was to sever the link between Kashmir
and Ladakh, and cause Indian forces to withdraw from the Siachen Glacier, thus forcing India to negotiate a
settlement of the broader Kashmir dispute. Pakistan also believed that any tension in the region would
internationalise the Kashmir issue, helping it to secure a speedy resolution. Yet another goal may have been to boost
the morale of the decade-long rebellion in Indian Administered Kashmir by taking a proactive role. Some writers

have speculated that the operation's objective may also have been as a retaliation for India's Operation Meghdoot in

ri7i
1984 that seized much of Siachen Glacier.

According to India's then army chief Ved Prakash Malik, and many other scholars, much of the background

planning, including construction of logistical supply routes, had been undertaken much earlier. On several occasions
during the 1980s and 1990s, the army had given Pakistani leaders (Zia ul Haq and Benazir Bhutto) similar proposals
for infiltration into the Kargil region, but the plans had been shelved for fear of drawing the nations into all-out

[20] [21] [22]

war.

Some analysts believe that the blueprint of attack was reactivated soon after Pervez Musharraf was appointed chief
of army staff in October 1998. After the war, Nawaz Sharif, Prime Minister of Pakistan during the Kargil

conflict, claimed that he was unaware of the plans, and that he first learned about the situation when he received an

[24]

urgent phone call from Atal Bihari Vajpayee, his counterpart in India. Sharif attributed the plan to Musharraf and

[25]

"just two or three of his cronies", a view shared by some Pakistani writers who have stated that only four
generals, including Musharraf, knew of the plan. Musharraf, however, asserted that Sharif had been briefed on

the Kargil operation 15 days ahead of Vajpayee's journey to Lahore on February 20

[27]

Kargil War

197

War progress

Further information: Kargil order of battle

Conflict Events

DATE

HISTORICAL EVENT

May 3,
1999

Pakistani intrusion in Kargil reported by local shepherds

May 5

Indian Army patrol sent up; Five Indian soldiers captured and tortured to death.

May 9

Heavy shelling by Pakistan Army damages ammunition dump in Kargil

May 10

Infiltrations first noticed in Dras, Kaksar and Mushkoh sectors

Mid-May

Indian Army moves in more troops from Kashmir Valley to Kargil Sector

May 26

IAF launches air strikes against infiltrators

May 27

IAF loses two fighters — MiG-21 and MiG-27;. Fit Lt Nachiketa taken POW

May 28

IAF MI- 17 shot down by Pakistan; four air crew dead

June 1

Pakistan steps up attacks; bombs NH 1A

June 5

Indian Army releases documents recovered from three Pakistani soldiers indicating Pakistan's involvement

June 6

Indian Army launches major offensive in Kargil

June 9

Indian Army re-captures two key positions in the Batalic sector

June 11

India releases intercepts of conversation between Pakistani Army Chief Gen Pervez Musharraf, while on a visit to China and Chief of
General Staff Lt Gen Aziz Khan in Rawalpindi, as proof of Pakistani Army's involvement

June 13

Indian Army secures Tololing in Dras

June 15

US President Bill Clinton, in a telephonic conversation, asks Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to pull out from Kargil

June 29

Indian Army captures two vital posts — Point 5060 and Point 5100 near Tiger Hill

July 2

Indian Army launches three-pronged attack in Kargil

July 4

Indian Army recaptures Tiger Hill after an 11 -hour battle

July 5

Indian Army takes control of Dras. Sharif announces Pakistani army's withdrawal from Kargil following his meeting with Clinton

July 7

India recaptures Jubar Heights in Batalik

July 1 1

Pakistan begins pullout; India captures key peaks in Batalik

July 14

Indian Prime Minister Atal Behari Vajpayee declares Operation Vijay a success. Government sets condition for talks with Pakistan

July 26

Kargil conflict officially comes to an end. Indian Army announces complete eviction of Pak intruders

[28] [29] [30]

There were three major phases to the Kargil War. First, Pakistan infiltrated forces into the Indian-controlled section
of Kashmir and occupied strategic locations enabling it to bring NH1 within range of its artillery fire. The next stage
consisted of India discovering the infiltration and mobilizing forces to respond to it. The final stage involved major
battles by Indian and Pakistani forces resulting in India recapturing some territory held by Pakistani forces and the
subsequent withdrawal of Pakistani forces back across the Line of Control after international pressure.

Kargil War

198

Occupation by Pakistan

During the winter season, due to extreme cold in the snow-capped
mountainous areas of Kashmir, it was a common practice for both the
Indian and Pakistan Armies to abandon some forward posts on their
respective sides of the LOC and to reduce patrolling of areas that may
be avenues of infiltration. When weather conditions became less
severe, forward posts would be reoccupied and patrolling resumed.

During February 1999, the Pakistan Army began to re-occupy the posts

it had abandoned on its side of the LOC in the Kargil region, but also

1311
sent forces to occupy some posts on the Indian side of the LOC.

Troops from the elite Special Services Group as well as four to seven

T32ir331

battalions of the Northern Light Infantry (a paramilitary

regiment not part of the regular Pakistani army at that time) covertly and overtly set up bases on the vantage points

of the Indian-controlled region. According to some reports, these Pakistani forces were backed by Kashmiri

Infiltration and military build-up.

guerrillas and Afghan mercenaries

[34]

Pakistani intrusions took place in the heights of the lower Mushkoh Valley, along the Marpo La ridgeline in Dras, in
Kaksar near Kargil, in the Batalik sector east of the Indus River, on the heights above of the Chorbatla sector where
the LOC turns North and in the Turtok sector south of the Siachen area.

India discovers infiltration and mobilizes

Initially, these incursions were not detected for a number of reasons: Indian patrols were not sent into some of the
areas infiltrated by the Pakistani forces and heavy artillery fire by Pakistan in some areas provided cover for the
infiltrators. But by the second week of May, the ambushing of an Indian patrol team led by Capt Saurabh Kalia,
who acted on a tip-off by a local shepherd in the Batalik sector, led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially, with
little knowledge of the nature or extent of the infiltration, the Indian troops in the area assumed that the infiltrators
were jihadis and claimed that they would evict them within a few days. Subsequent discovery of infiltration
elsewhere along the LOC, and the difference in tactics employed by the infiltrators, caused the Indian army to realize
that the plan of attack was on a much bigger scale. The total area seized by the ingress is generally accepted to
between 130 km 2 - 200 km 2 ; [26][32][36]

The Government of India responded with Operation Vijay, a mobilisation of 200,000 Indian troops. However,
because of the nature of the terrain, division and corps operations could not be mounted; subsequent fighting was

1371

conducted mostly at the regimental or battalion level. In effect, two divisions of the Indian Army, numbering
20,000, plus several thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the air force were deployed in the conflict
zone. The total number of Indian soldiers that were involved in the military operation on the Kargil-Drass sector was
thus close to 30,000. The number of infiltrators, including those providing logistical backup, has been put at
approximately 5,000 at the height of the conflict. This figure includes troops from Pakistan-administered

Kashmir who provided additional artillery support.

The Indian Air Force launched Operation Safed Sagar in support of the mobilization of Indian land forces, but its
effectiveness during the war was limited by the high altitude and weather conditions, which in turn limited bomb
loads and the number of airstrips that could be used.

T381

The Indian Navy also prepared to blockade the Pakistani ports (primarily Karachi port) to cut off supply

[39]
routes. Later, the then-Prime Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif disclosed that Pakistan was left with just six days

121
of fuel to sustain itself if a full-fledged war had broken out.

Kargil War

199

India attacks Pakistani positions

The terrain of Kashmir is mountainous and at high altitudes; even the best roads, such as National Highway ID from
Leh to Srinagar, are only two lanes. The rough terrain and narrow roads slowed traffic, and the high altitude, which
affected the ability of aircraft to carry loads, made control of NH ID (the actual stretch of the highway which was
under Pakistani fire) a priority for India. From their observation posts, the Pakistani forces had a clear line-of-sight to
lay down indirect artillery fire on NH ID, inflicting heavy casualties on the Indians. This was a serious problem
for the Indian Army as the highway was its main logistical and supply route. The Pakistani shelling of the arterial
road posed the threat of Leh being cut off, though an alternative (and longer) road to Leh existed via Himachal
Pradesh.

The infiltrators, apart from being equipped with small arms and grenade launchers, were also armed with mortars,

artillery and anti-aircraft guns. Many posts were also heavily mined, with India later stating to having recovered

1421
more than 8,000 anti-personnel mines according to an ICBL report. Pakistan's reconnaissance was done through

unmanned aerial vehicles and AN/TPQ-36 Firefinder radars supplied by the US. The initial Indian attacks were

aimed at controlling the hills overlooking NH ID, with high priority being given to the stretches of the highway near

the town of Kargil. The majority of posts along the Line of Control were adjacent to the highway, and therefore the

recapture of nearly every infiltrated post increased both the territorial gains and the security of the highway. The

protection of this route and the recapture of the forward posts were thus ongoing objectives throughout the war.

The Indian Army's first priority was to recapture peaks that were in the immediate vicinity of NH ID. This resulted
in Indian troops first targeting the Tiger Hill and Tololing complex in Dras, which dominated the Srinagar-Leh
route. This was soon followed by the Batalik-Turtok sub-sector which provided access to Siachen Glacier. Some
of the peaks that were of vital strategic importance to the Pakistani defensive troops were Point 4590 and Point 5353.

While 4590 was the nearest point that had a view of NH ID, point 5353 was the highest feature in the Dras sector,

T451
allowing the Pakistani troops to observe NH ID. The recapture of Point 4590 by Indian troops on June 14 was

significant, notwithstanding the fact that it resulted in the Indian Army suffering the most casualties in a single battle

during the conflict. Though most of the posts in the vicinity of the highway were cleared by mid- June, some parts

of the highway near Drass witnessed sporadic shelling until the end of the war.

Once India regained control of the hills overlooking NH ID, the Indian
Army turned to driving the invading force back across the Line of
Control. The Battle of Tololing, among other assaults, slowly tilted the
combat in India's favor. The Pakistani troops at Tololing were aided by
Pakistani fighters from Kashmir. Some of the posts put up a stiff
resistance, including Tiger Hill (Point 5140) that fell only later in the

Z -""^**^^ war. Indian troops found well-entrenched Pakistani soldiers at Tiger

Hill, and both sides suffered heavy casualties. After a final assault on
the peak in which 10 Pakistani soldiers and 5 Indian soldiers were
killed, Tiger Hill finally fell. A few of the assaults occurred atop
hitherto unheard of peaks — most of them unnamed with only Point
numbers to differentiate them — which witnessed fierce hand to hand
combat.

As the operation was fully underway, about 250 artillery guns were brought in to clear the infiltrators in the posts
that were in the line-of-sight. The Bofors FH-77B field howitzer played a vital role, with Indian gunners making
maximum use of the terrain that assisted such an attack. However, its success was limited elsewhere due to the lack
of space and depth to deploy the Bofors gun.

It was in this type of terrain that aerial attacks were used with limited effectiveness. French made Mirage 2000H of

T21
the IAF were tasked to drop laser-guided bombs to destroy well-entrenched positions of the Pakistani forces.

However, The IAF lost a MiG-27 strike aircraft which it attributed to an engine failure as well as a MiG-21 fighter

IAF MiG-21s were used extensively in the Kargil
war.

Kargil War

200

which was shot down by Pakistan; initially Pakistan said it shot down both jets after they crossed into its territory
One Mi-8 helicopter was also lost, due to Stinger SAMs.

On May 27, 1999, Fit. Lt. Nachiketa developed engine trouble in the
Batalik sector and bailed out of his craft. Sqn Ldr Ajay Ahuja went out
of his way to locate his comrade but was shot down by a shoulder-fired
Stinger missile. According to reports, he had bailed out of his stricken
plane safely but was apparently killed by his captors as his body was

[47]

returned riddled with bullet wounds

|2]

During the Kargil conflict IAF Mirage 2000Hs
carried out strike missions.

In many vital points, neither artillery nor air power could dislodge the
outposts manned by the Pakistani soldiers, who were out of visible
range. The Indian Army mounted some direct frontal ground assaults
which were slow and took a heavy toll given the steep ascent that had

to be made on peaks as high as 18000 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m). Since any daylight attack would be
suicidal, all the advances had to be made under the cover of darkness, escalating the risk of freezing. Accounting for
the wind chill factor, the temperatures were often as low as -15 °C to -11 °C (12 °F to 5 °F) near the mountain tops.
Based on military tactics, much of the costly frontal assaults by the Indians could have been avoided if the Indian
Military had chosen to blockade the supply route of the opposing force, virtually creating a siege. Such a move
would have involved the Indian troops crossing the LoC as well as initiating aerial attacks on Pakistan soil, a
manoeuvre India was not willing to exercise fearing an expansion of the theatre of war and reducing international
support for its cause.

Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the

[48] [49]

infiltrators; according to official count, an estimated 75%— 80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground

was back under Indian control

[16]

Withdrawal and final battles

Following the outbreak of armed fighting, Pakistan sought American help in de-escalating the conflict. Bruce Riedel,
aide to then President Bill Clinton reported that the US intelligence had imaged Pakistani movements of nuclear
weapons to forward deployments for fear of the Kargil hostilities escalating into a wider conflict between the two
countries. However, President Clinton refused to intervene until Pakistan had removed all forces from the Indian side
of the Line of Control. Following the Washington accord on July 4, where Sharif agreed to withdraw Pakistani
troops, most of the fighting came to a gradual halt, but some Pakistani forces remained in positions on the Indian
side of the LOC. In addition, the United Jihad Council (an umbrella for extremist groups) rejected Pakistan's plan for
a climb-down, instead deciding to fight on.

The Indian army launched its final attacks in the last week of July; as soon as the Drass subsector had been cleared
of Pakistani forces, the fighting ceased on July 26. The day has since been marked as Kargil Vijay Diwas (Kargil
Victory Day) in India. By the end of the war, India had resumed control of all territory south and east of the Line of
Control, as was established in July 1972 as per the Simla Agreement.

World opinion

Pakistan was criticised by other countries for instigating the war, as its paramilitary forces and insurgents crossed the

[521
Line of Control. Pakistan's primary diplomatic response, one of plausible deniability linking the incursion to what

[53]

it officially termed as "Kashmiri freedom fighters", was in the end not successful. Veteran analysts argued that
the battle was fought at heights where only seasoned troops could survive, so poorly equipped "freedom fighters"
would neither have the ability nor the wherewithal to seize land and defend it. Moreover, while the army had initially
denied the involvement of its troops in the intrusion, two soldiers were awarded the Nishan-E-Haider (Pakistan's

KargilWar 201

highest military honour). Another 90 soldiers were also given gallantry awards, most of them posthumously,

confirming Pakistan's role in the episode. India also released taped phone conversations between the Army Chief and

T541
a senior Pakistani general where the latter is recorded saying: "the scruff of [the militants] necks is in our hands,'

although Pakistan dismissed it as a "total fabrication". Concurrently, Pakistan made several contradicting statements,

confirming its role in Kargil, when it defended the incursions saying that the LOC itself was disputed. Pakistan

also attempted to internationalize the Kashmir issue, by linking the crisis in Kargil to the larger Kashmir conflict but,

such a diplomatic stance found few backers on the world stage.

As the Indian counter-attacks picked up momentum, Pakistani prime minister Nawaz Sharif flew to meet U.S.
President Bill Clinton on July 4 to obtain support from the United States. Clinton rebuked Sharif, however, and
asked him to use his contacts to rein in the militants and withdraw Pakistani soldiers from Indian territory. Clinton
would later reveal in his autobiography that "Sharif s moves were perplexing" since the Indian Prime Minister had

travelled to Lahore to promote bilateral talks aimed at resolving the Kashmir problem and "by crossing the Line of

[571
Control, Pakistan had wrecked the [bilateral] talks." On the other hand, he applauded Indian restraint for not

crossing the LoC and escalating the conflict into an all-out war.

G8 nations supported India and condemned the Pakistani violation of the LOC at the Cologne summit. The European

[59]
Union also opposed Pakistan's violation of the LOC. China, a long-time ally of Pakistan, insisted on a pullout of

forces to the pre-conflict positions along the LoC and settling border issues peacefully. Other organizations like the

ASEAN Regional Forum too supported India's stand on the inviolability of the LOC.

Faced with growing international pressure, Sharif managed to pull back the remaining soldiers from Indian territory.
The joint statement issued by Clinton and Sharif conveyed the need to respect the Line of Control and resume
bilateral talks as the best forum to resolve all disputes.

Gallantry awards

A number of Indian soldiers earned awards for gallantry during the campaign.

• Grenadier Yogendra Singh Yadav, 18 Grenadiers, Param Vir Chakra

• Lieutenant Manoj Kumar Pandey, 1/1 1 Gorkha Rifles, Param Vir Chakra, Posthumous

• Captain Vikram Batra, 13 JAK Rifles, Param Vir Chakra, Posthumous

• Captain Anuj Nayyar,17 JAT Regiment, Maha Vir Chakra, Posthumous

• Major Saravanan, 1 Bihar, Vir Chakra, Posthumous

• Squadron Leader Ajay Ahuja, Indian Air Force, Vir Chakra, Posthumous

• Rifleman Sanjay Kumar, 13 JAK Rifles, Param Vir Chakra

• Major Rajesh Singh Adhikari, 18 Grenadiers, Maha Vir Chakra, Posthumous

Two Pakistani soldiers received the Nishan-e-Haider.

• Captain Karnal Sher Khan, Nishan-e-Haider, Posthumous

• Havaldaar Lalak Jan, Northern Light Infantry, Nishan-e-Haider, Posthumous

Impact and influence of media

The Kargil War was significant for the impact and influence of the mass media on public opinion in both nations.
Coming at a time of exploding growth in electronic journalism in India, the Kargil news stories and war footage
were often telecast live on TV, and many websites provided in-depth analysis of the war. The conflict became the
first "live" war in South Asia; it was given such detailed media coverage that one effect was the drumming up of
jingoistic feelings.

The conflict soon turned into a news propaganda war, in which press briefings given by government officials of each
nation produced conflicting claims and counterclaims. The Indian government placed a temporary news embargo on
information from Pakistan, banning the telecast of the state-run Pakistani channel PTV and blocking access to

Kargil War 202

online editions of the Dawn newspaper. The Pakistani media criticized this apparent curbing of freedom of the
press in India, while India media claimed it was in the interest of national security. The Indian government ran
advertisements in foreign publications including The Times and The Washington Post detailing Pakistan's role in
supporting extremists in Kashmir in an attempt to garner political support for its position.

As the war progressed, media coverage of the conflict was more intense in India than in Pakistan. Many Indian
channels showed images from the battle zone in a style reminiscent of CNN's coverage of the Gulf War (one of the
shells fired by Pakistan troops even hit a Doordarshan transmission centre in Kargil while coverage continued).
Reasons for India's increased coverage included the greater number of privately owned electronic media in India
compared to Pakistan and relatively greater transparency in the Indian media. At a seminar in Karachi, Pakistani
journalists agreed that while the Indian government had taken the press and the people into its confidence, Pakistan
hadnot. [70]

The print media in India and abroad was largely sympathetic to the Indian cause, with editorials in newspapers based
in the west and other neutral countries observing that Pakistan was largely responsible for the conflict. Some analysts

believe that Indian media, which was both larger in number and more credible, may have acted as a force multiplier

r7ii
for the Indian military operation in Kargil and served as a morale booster. As the fighting intensified, the

Pakistani version of events found little backing on the world stage. This helped India gain valuable diplomatic

recognition for its position.

WMDs and the nuclear factor

Since Pakistan and India each had weapons of mass destruction, many in the international community were
concerned that if the Kargil conflict intensified, it could lead to nuclear war. Both countries had tested their nuclear
capability in 1998 (India conducted its first test in 1974 while it was Pakistan's first-ever nuclear test). Many pundits
believed the tests to be an indication of the escalating stakes in the scenario in South Asia. When the Kargil conflict
started just a year after the nuclear tests, many nations desired to end it before it intensified.

International concerns increased when Pakistani foreign secretary Shamshad Ahmad made a statement on May 31

T72]

warning that an escalation of the limited conflict could lead Pakistan to use "any weapon" in its arsenal. This was
immediately interpreted as a threat of nuclear retaliation by Pakistan in the event of an extended war, and the belief

was reinforced when the leader of Pakistan's senate noted, "The purpose of developing weapons becomes

T731
meaningless if they are not used when they are needed." Many such ambiguous statements from officials of both

countries were viewed as warnings of an impending nuclear crisis where the combatants would consider use of their

limited nuclear arsenals in 'tactical' nuclear warfare in the belief that it would not have ended in mutual assured

destruction, as could have occurred in a nuclear conflict between the United States and the USSR. Some experts

believe that following nuclear tests in 1998, the Pakistani military was emboldened by its nuclear deterrent to

markedly increase coercion against India.

The nature of the India-Pakistan conflict took a more sinister turn when the U.S. received intelligence that Pakistani
nuclear warheads were being moved towards the border. Bill Clinton tried to dissuade Pakistan prime minister
Nawaz Sharif from nuclear brinkmanship, even threatening Pakistan of dire consequences. According to a White
House official, Sharif seemed to be genuinely surprised by this supposed missile movement and responded that India

was probably planning the same. In an article in May 2000 Dr Sanjay Badri-Maharaj claimed that India too had

T751
readied at least five nuclear-tipped ballistic missiles, but could not back up this claim with any official proof.

Sensing a deteriorating military scenario, diplomatic isolation, and the risks of a larger conventional and nuclear war,
Sharif ordered the Pakistani army to vacate the Kargil heights. He later claimed in his official biography that General
Pervez Musharraf had moved nuclear warheads without informing him. Recently however, Pervez Musharraf

T321

revealed in his memoirs that Pakistan's nuclear delivery system was not operational during the Kargil war;
something that would have put Pakistan under serious disadvantage if the conflict went nuclear.

Kargil War 203

The threat of WMD included chemical and even biological weapons. Pakistan accused India of using chemical
weapons and incendiary weapons such as napalm against the Kashmiri fighters. India, on the other hand, showcased
a cache of gas masks as proof that Pakistan may have been prepared to use non-conventional weapons. US official

and the Organisation for the Prohibition of Chemical Weapons determined that Pakistani allegations of India using

ill]
banned chemicals in its bombs were unfounded.

Aftermath
India

From the end of the war until February 2000, the Indian stock market rose by over 30%. The next Indian national
budget included major increases in military spending.

T7S1

There was a surge in patriotism, with many celebrities expressing their support for the Kargil cause. Indians were
angered by media reports of the death of pilot Ajay Ahuja, especially after Indian authorities reported that Ahuja had
been murdered and his body mutilated by Pakistani troops. The war had produced higher than expected fatalities for
the Indian military, with a sizeable percentage of them including newly commissioned officers. One month after
conclusion of the Kargil war, the Atlantique Incident - where a Pakistan Navy plane was shot down by India - briefly
reignited fears of a conflict between the two countries.

After the war, the Indian government severed ties with Pakistan and increased defence preparedness. India increased

[79]
its defence budget as it sought to acquire more state of the art equipment. Media reported about military

procurement irregularities and criticism of intelligence agencies like Research and Analysis Wing, which failed to

predict the intrusions or the identity/number of infiltrators during the war. An internal assessment report by the

armed forces, published in an Indian magazine, showed several other failings, including "a sense of complacency"

and being "unprepared for a conventional war" on the presumption that nuclearism would sustain peace. It also

highlighted the lapses in command and control, the insufficient troop levels and the dearth of large-calibre guns like

roil

the Bofors. In 2006, retired Air Chief Marshal, A.Y. Tipnis, alleged that the Indian Army did not fully inform the

government about the intrusions, adding that the army chief Ved Prakash Malik, was initially reluctant to use the full

rs2i
strike capability of the Indian Air Force, instead requesting only helicopter gunship support. Soon after the

roil

conflict, India also decided to complete the project - previously stalled by Pakistan - to fence the entire LOC.

The end of the Kargil conflict was followed by the 13th Indian General Elections to the Lok Sabha, which gave a
decisive mandate to the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) government. It was re-elected to power in
September— October 1999 with a majority of 303 seats out of 545 in the Lok Sabha. On the diplomatic front,
Indo-U.S. relations improved, as the United States appreciated Indian attempts to restrict the conflict to a limited
geographic area. Relations with Israel — which had discreetly aided India with ordnance supply and materiel such

roc]

as unmanned aerial vehicles and laser-guided bombs, as well as satellite imagery — also were bolstered.

Kargil Review Committee

Soon after the war the Atal Behari Vajpayee government set up an inquiry into its causes and to analyze perceived
Indian intelligence failures. The high-powered committee was chaired by eminent strategic affairs analyst K.
Subrahmanyam and given powers to interview anyone with current or past associations with Indian security,

including former Prime Ministers. The committee's final report (also referred to as the 'Subrahmanyam Report )

rs7i
led to a large-scale restructuring of Indian Intelligence. It, however, came in for heavy criticism in the Indian

media for its perceived avoidance of assigning specific responsibility for failures over detecting the Kargil

rQQ]

intrusions. The Committee was also embroiled in controversy for indicting Brigadier Surinder Singh of the Indian
Army for his failure to report enemy intrusions in time, and for his subsequent conduct. Many press reports
questioned or contradicted this finding and claimed that Singh had in fact issued early warnings that were ignored by
senior Indian Army commanders and, ultimately, higher government functionaries.

Kargil War 204

[92]
In a departure from the norm the final report was published and made publicly available. Some chapters and all

annexures, however, were deemed to contain classified information by the government and not released. K.

Subrahmanyam later wrote that the annexures contained information on the development of India's nuclear weapons

[93] [94]
program and the roles played by Prime Ministers Rajiv Gandhi, P. V. Narasimha Rao and V P Singh.

Pakistan

Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was weakened
further. The morale of Pakistani forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the Northern Light

rmr97i r98ir99i

Infantry suffered heavy casualties. The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers,

an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas. Pakistan initially did not acknowledge

many of its casualties, but Sharif later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation.
Responding to this, Pakistan President Pervez Musharraf said, "It hurts me when an ex-premier undermines his own

forces," and claimed that Indian casualties were more than that of Pakistan.

[95]
Many in Pakistan had expected a victory over the Indian military based on Pakistani official reports on the war,

but were dismayed by the turn of events and questioned the eventual retreat. The military leadership is

believed to have felt let down by the prime minister's decision to withdraw the remaining fighters. However, some

authors, including ex-CENTCOM Commander Anthony Zinni, and ex-PM Nawaz Sharif, state that it was General

Musharraf who requested Sharif to withdraw the Pakistani troops. With Sharif placing the onus of the Kargil

attacks squarely on the army chief Pervez Musharraf, there was an atmosphere of uneasiness between the two. On

October 12, 1999, General Musharraf staged a bloodless coup d'etat, ousting Nawaz Sharif.

Benazir Bhutto, an opposition leader and former prime minister, called the Kargil War "Pakistan's greatest
blunder". Many ex-officials of the military and the Inter-Services Intelligence (Pakistan's principal intelligence
agency) also believed that "Kargil was a waste of time" and "could not have resulted in any advantage" on the larger
issue of Kashmir. A retired Pakistani Army General, Lt Gen Ali Kuli Khan Khattak, lambasted the war as "a
disaster bigger than the East Pakistan tragedy", adding that the plan was "flawed in terms of its conception,
tactical planning and execution" that ended in "sacrificing so many soldiers." The Pakistani media criticized

the whole plan and the eventual climbdown from the Kargil heights since there were no gains to show for the loss of
lives and it only resulted in international condemnation.

Despite calls by many, no public commission of inquiry was set up in Pakistan to investigate the people responsible
for initiating the conflict. The Pakistan Muslim League (N) (PML(N)) published a white paper in 2006, which stated
that Nawaz Sharif constituted an inquiry committee that recommended a court martial for General Pervez Musharraf,
but Musharraf "stole the report" after toppling the government, to save himself. The report also claims that India
knew about the plan 1 1 months before its launch, enabling a complete victory for India on military, diplomatic and
economic fronts. A statement in June, 2008 by a former Pakistan Army X Corps Core-commander and

Director-General of Military Intelligence (M.I.) that time, Lieutenant-General (retired) Jamshed Gulzar Kiani said
that As Prime minister, Nawaz Sharif "was never briefed by the army" on the Kargil attack, reignited the
demand for a probe of the episode by legal and political groups.

Though the Kargil conflict had brought the Kashmir dispute into international focus — which was one of the aims of
Pakistan — it had done so in negative circumstances that eroded its credibility, since the infiltration came just after a
peace process between the two countries was underway. The sanctity of the LOC too received international
recognition. President Clinton's move to ask Islamabad to withdraw hundreds of armed militants from
Indian-administered Kashmir was viewed by many in Pakistan as indicative of a clear shift in US policy against
Pakistan.

After the war, a few changes were made to the Pakistan army. In recognition of the Northern Light Infantry's
performance in the war - which even drew praise from a retired Indian Lt. General - the regiment was
incorporated into the regular army. The war showed that despite a tactically sound plan that had the element of

Kargil War

205

surprise, little groundwork had been done to gauge the politico-diplomatic ramifications. And like previous

unsuccessful infiltrations attempts, such as Operation Gibraltar, which sparked the 1965 war, there was little
coordination or information sharing among the branches of the Pakistani Armed Forces. One U.S. Intelligence study
is reported to have stated that Kargil was yet another example of Pakistan's (lack of) grand strategy, repeating the
follies of the previous wars.

Casualties

Pakistan army losses have been difficult to determine. Pakistan
confirmed that 453 soldiers were killed. The US Department of State
had made an early, partial estimate of close to 700 fatalities. According
to numbers stated by Nawaz Sharif there were over 4,000 fatalities. His
PML (N) party in its "white paper" on the war mentioned that more
than 3,000 Mujahideens, officers and soldiers were killed. Another
major Pakistani political party, the Pakistan Peoples Party, also says

that "thousands" of soldiers and irregulars died. Indian estimates

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stand at 1,042 Pakistani soldiers killed. Musharraf, in his Hindi

version of his memoirs, titled "Agnipath", differs from all the estimates

stating that 357 troops were killed with a further 665 wounded.

Apart from General Musharraf s figure on the number of Pakistanis

wounded, the number of people injured in the Pakistan camp is not yet

fully known although they are at least more than 400 according to

Pakistan army's website. One Indian Pilot was officially captured

during the fighting, while there were eight Pakistani soldiers who were

captured during the fighting, and were repatriated on 13 August 1999;

India gave its official casualty figures as 527 dead and 1,363 wounded.

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Memorial of Operation Vijay.

Kargil War in the arts

The brief conflict provided considerable dramatic material for filmmakers and authors in India. Some documentaries
which were shot on the subject were used by the ruling party coalition, led by Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), in
furthering its election campaign that immediately followed the war. The following is a list of the major films and
dramas on the subject.

• "Lord John Marbury (The West Wing)" (1999), 1 1th episode of the first season depicts a fictionalized
representation of the Kargil conflict.

• Pentagram's single, 'Price Of Bullets', released in 1999 dealt with the Kargil War.

• LOC: Kargil (2003), a Hindi movie which depicts many incidents from the war was one of the longest in Indian
movie history, running for more than four hours.

• Lakshya (2004), another Hindi movie portraying a fictionalised account of the conflict. Movie critics have

M271

generally appreciated the realistic portrayal of characters. The film also received good reviews in Pakistan

because it portrays both sides fairly.

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• Sainika (2002), the Kannada film directed by Mahesh Sukhdhare depicted the life of a soldier with Kargil war

as one of the events. Starring C.P.Yogishwar and Sakshi Shivanand.

• Dhoop (2003), ~ Hindi film, directed by national award winner Ashwini Chaudhary, which depicted the life of
Anuj Nayyar's parents after his death. Anuj Nayyar was a captain in the Indian army and was awarded Maha Vir
Chakra posthumously. Om Puri plays the role of S.K. Nayyar, Anuj's father.

Kargil War 206

• Mission Fateh - Real Stories of Kargil Heroes, a TV series telecast on Sahara channel chronicling the Indian
Army's missions.

• Fifty Day War - A theatrical production on the war, directed by Aamir Raza Husain, the title indicating the length
of the Kargil conflict. This was claimed to be the biggest production of its kind in Asia, budget of Rs. 1.5 crore,
involving real aircraft and explosions in an outdoor setting.

• Kurukshetra{20Q%) - A Malayalam film directed by a former Indian Army Major - major Ravi (Retd) based on his
actual experience of Kargil War.

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Many other movies like Tango Charlie drew heavily upon the Kargil episode, which still continues to be a plot

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for mainstream movies with a Malayalam movie Keerthi Chakra. The impact of the war in the sporting arena
was also visible during the India-Pakistan clash in the 1999 Cricket World Cup, which coincided with the Kargil
timeline. The game witnessed heightened passions and was one of the most viewed matches in the tournament.

Notes

[I] It is also sometimes referred to as Operation Vijay Kargil so as to distinguish it from Operation Vijay (1961), the operation hy the Military
of India that led to the capture of Goa, Daman and Diu and Anjidiv Islands.

[2] "1999 Kargil Conflict" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/kargil-99.htm). GlobalSecurity.org. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[3] Tom Clancy, Gen. Tony Zinni (Retd) and Tony Koltz (2004). Battle Ready. Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 0-399-15176-1.
[4] "Pak commander blows the lid on Islamabad's Kargil plot" (http://www.indianexpress.com/news/

as-spell-binding-as-the-guns-of-navarone/475330/). June 12, 2009. . Retrieved 2009-06-13.
[5] "Sharif admits he let down Vajpayee on Kargil conflict" (http://www.hindu.com/2007/09/10/stories/2007091059781400.htm). The

Hindu (Chennai, India). 2007-09-10. . Retrieved 2007-10-06.
[6] Nawaz, Shuja, Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within, p. 420 (2007)
[7] Hussain, Javed (2006-10-21). "Kargil: what might have happened" (http://www.dawn.eom/2006/10/21/ed.htm#4). Dawn. . Retrieved

2009-05-20.
[8] Cheema, Pervaiz Iqbal (2003). The Armed Forces of Pakistan. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-1 19- 1. Pg 4
[9] Profile of Kargil District (http://kargil.nic.in/profile/profile.htm) Official website of Kargil District
[10] "Climate & Soil conditions" (http://kargil.nic.in/profile/profile.htm). Official website of Kargil District. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.

[II] "War in Kargil - The CCC's summary on the war" (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/war_in_kargil.pdf) (PDF). . Retrieved
2009-05-20.

[12] Chandran, Suba (2004). "Limited War with Pakistan: Will It Secure India's Interests?" (http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/

publication-LimitedWarwithPakistanWillItSecureIndiasInterests.html). ACDIS Occasional Paper. Program in Arms Control, Disarmament,

and International Security (ACDIS), University of Illinois. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[13] Against the accepted 3:1 ratio for attacking troops vs defending troops (http://www.rand.org/pubs/monograph_reports/MR638/), the

ratio over mountain terrain is estimated at 6:1. Men At War (http://www.india-today.com/itoday/19990726/cover3.html) India Today
[14] Acosta, Marcus P., CPT, U.S. Army, High Altitude Warfare- The Kargil Conflict & the Future (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/

theses/Acosta03.pdf), June 2003. Alternate Link (http://www.nps.edu/academics/sigs/nsa/publicationsandresearch/studenttheses/

theses/Acosta03.pdf)
[15] "The Coldest War" (http://outside.away.com/outside/features/200302/200302_siachen_7.html). Outside Magazine. . Retrieved

2009-05-20.
[16] Kargil: where defence met diplomacy (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_26-7-2002_pg4_12) - India's then Chief

of Army Staff VP Malik, expressing his views on Operation Vijay. Hosted on Daily Times; The Fate of Kashmir By Vikas Kapur and Vipin

Narang (http://www.stanford.edU/group/sjir/3.l.06_kapur-narang.html) Stanford Journal of International Relations; Book review of

"The Indian Army: A Brief History by Maj Gen Ian Cardozo" (http://www.ipcs. org/ipcs/displayReview.jsp?kValue=102) - Hosted on

IPCS
[17] Robert G. Wirsing (2003). Kashmir in the Shadow of War: regional rivalries in a nuclear age. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1090-6. Pg 38
[18] Ludra, Kuldip S. (2001). Operation Badr.Mussharefs contribution to Pakistan's thousand years war against India. Institute for Strategic

Research and Analysis Chandigarh.
[19] Low Intensity Conflicts in India By Vivek Chadha, United Service Institution of India Published by SAGE, 2005, ISBN 0-7619-3325-5
[20] Hassan Abbas (2004). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1497-9.
[21] Musharraf advised against Kargil, says Benazir (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_2-7-2003_pg7_19), 'Musharraf

planned Kargil when I was PM' : Bhutto - Previous interview to Hindustan Times on November 30, 2001
[22] Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within by Shuja Nawaz Oxford University Press
[23] Kapur, S. Paul (2007). Dangerous Deterrent. Stanford University Press, p. 1 18. ISBN 0-8047-5550-7.
[24] "Nawaz blames Musharraf for Kargil" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/1581473.cms). The Times of India. 2006-05-28. .

Retrieved 2009-05-20.

Kargil War 207

[25] "I learnt about Kargil from Vajpayee, says Nawaz" (http://www.dawn.com/2006/05/29/natl.htm). Dawn. 2006-05-29. . Retrieved

2006-05-29.
[26] Qadir, Shaukat (April 2002). "An Analysis of the Kargil Conflict 1999" (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/JA00199.pdf).

RUSI Journal. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[27] "Kargil planned before Vajpayee's visit: Musharraf" (http://www. expressindia.com/fullstory. php?newsid=71008). Indian Express.

2006-07-13. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[28] http://www.tribuneindia.com/201 1/201 10726/edit.htm#6

[29] Kargil War: Need to learn strategic lessons General (Retd) V P Malik, India Tribune article 26/7/2011
[30] BBC news Kargil conflict timeline (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/387702.stm)

[31] "How I Started A War" (http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,991457,00.html). Time. 1999-07-12. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[32] Pervez Musharraf (2006). In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-8344-9.
[33] "The Northern Light Infantry in the Kargil Operations" (http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/pakistan/nli_kargill999.html). .

Retrieved 2009-05-20. by Ravi Rikhye 1999 August 25, 2002 - ORBAT
[34] It is estimated that around 2,000 "Mujahideen" might have been involved as Musharraf stated on July 6, 1999 to Pakistan's The News; online

article (http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/AG08Df01.html) in the Asia Times quoting the General's estimate. An Indian Major

General(retd) too puts the number of guerrillas at 2,000 (http://www.rediff.com/news/1999/jul/15ashok.htm) apart from the NLI Infantry

Regiment.
[35] Saurabh Kalia's parents waging a lone battle to highlight war crimes (http://www.hindu.com/2009/07/06/stories/2009070655650700.

htm)
[36] War in Kargil (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/war_in_kargil.pdf) (PDF) Islamabad Playing with Fire by Praful Bidwai

(http://www.tni.org/archives/bidwai/danger.htm) - The Tribune, 7 June 1999
[37] Gen VP Malik. "Lessons from Kargil" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-6/malik.html). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[38] Grare, Frederic. "The Resurgence of Baluch nationalism" (http://www.carnegieendowment.org/files/CP65.Grare.FINAL.pdf) (PDF).

Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[39] "Exercise Seaspark — 2001" (http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/apr/seaspark.htm). Defence Journal. April 2001. . Retrieved

2009-05-20.
[40] "Indian general praises Pakistani valour at Kargil" (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_5-5-2003_pg7_14). Daily

Times, Pakistan. 2003-05-05. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[41] Kashmir in the Shadow of War By Robert Wirsing Published by M.E. Sharpe, 2003 ISBN 0-7656-1090-6 pp36
[42] Landmine monitor - India (http://www.icbl.org/lm/2000/india)
[43] Indian Army gets hostile weapon locating capability (http://indiaenews.com/2006-07/

151 12-indian-army-gets-hostile-weapon-locating-capability.htm)
[44] Managing Armed Conflicts in the 21st Century By Adekeye Adebajo, Chandra Lekha Sriram Published by Routledge ppl92,193
[45] Swami, Praveen (2004-06-30). "Commander ordered capture of Point 5353 in Kargil war" (http://www.hindu.com/2004/06/30/stories/

2004063006391100.htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[46] The State at War in South Asia By Pradeep Barua Published by U of Nebraska Press Page 261
[47] India loses two jets (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/354120.stm)

[48] "Bitter Chill of Winter" (http://www.lrb.co.uk/v23/n08/ali_01_.html). TariqAli, London Review of Books. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[49] Colonel Ravi Nanda (1999). Kargil : A Wake Up Call. Vedams Books. ISBN 81-7095-074-0. Online summary of the Book (https://www.

vedamsbooks.com/nol4953.htm)
[50] Pakistan 'prepared nuclear strike' (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/1989886.stm)
[51] "Pakistan and the Kashmir militants" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/386537.stm). BBC News. 1999-07-05. . Retrieved

2009-05-20.
[52] Hassan Abbas (2004). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, The Army, And America's War On Terror. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1497-9.

Pg 173; Revisiting Kargil: Was it a Failure for Pakistan's Military?, IPCS (http://www.ipcs.org/whatsNewArticlell.

j sp?action=sho wView&kValue= 1 647& status=article&mod=b)
[53] "Lesson learnt?" (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/cowas/990711.htm). dawn. 2006-07-24. . Retrieved 2009-08-02.
[54] "Transcripts of conversations between Lt Gen Mohammad Aziz, Chief of General Staff and Musharraf" (http://web.archive.org/web/

20080701220255/http://www. india-today.com/kargil/ audio. html). India Today. Archived from the original (http://www.india-today.

com/kargil/audio.html) on July 1, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[55] U.S. brokers Kargil peace but problems remain (http://www.atimes.com/ind-pak/AG07Df01.html)
[56] "ASEAN backs India's stand" (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/1999/99jul25/world.htm#6). The Tribune. 2006-07-24. . Retrieved

2009-05-20.
[57] Bill Clinton (2004). My Life. Random House. ISBN 0-375-41457-6., Pg 865

[58] Dialogue call amid fresh fighting - (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/399897.stm) - BBC News
[59] "India encircles rebels on Kashmir mountaintop" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20080614150423/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/

asiapcf/9907/02/kashmir.pakistan/). CAW. Archived from the original (http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9907/02/kashmir.

Pakistan/) on June 14, 2008. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.CNN

Kargil War 208

[60] "Text of joint Clinton-Sharif statement" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20080516134001/http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9907/

05/kashmir.02/). CNN. Archived from the original (http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9907/05/kashmir.02/) on May 16, 2008. .

Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[61] "Disarmament Diplomacy - Complete texts of Indian and Pakistani statements following Pakistan's decision to withdraw its troops in

Kargil" (http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/dd39/39kash.htm). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[62] Indian Army Param Vir Chakra Winners (http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/pvc.html)
[63] http ://www. shaheedfoundation. org/NishaneHaider. asp

[64] India's Nuclear Bomb By George Perkovich University of California Press, 2002 ISBN 0-520-23210-0, Page 473
[65] Sachdev, A.K.. "Media Related Lessons From Kargil - Strategic Analysis: January 2000 (Vol. XXIII No. 10)" (http://www.ciaonet.org/

olj/sa/sa_00saa01.html). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[66] "Centre bans PTV" (http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/ple/ie/daily/19990603/ige03090.html). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.Indian

Express June 3, 1999
[67] Delhi lifts ban on Dawn website, PTV broadcasts (http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/Dawn/1999/17jul99.

html#delh) Dawn wire service 17 July 1999
[68] A different view of Kargil by Rasheeda Bhagat (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fll619/16191300.htm) Volume 16 - Issue 19, Sep.

11-24, 1999 The Frontline
[69] Pak TV ban gets good response (http://www.indiantelevision.com/newsletter/070699/dd070699.htm)
[70] Pak media lament lost opportunity (http://www.rediff.com/news/1999/jul/20media.htm) - Editorial statements and news headlines from

Pakistan hosted on Rediff.com
[71] The role of media in war - Sultan M Hali (http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/aug/role-media-war.htm), Press Information Bureau,

India (http://pib.nic.in/feature/feyr2000/fjul2000/f210720001.html)
[72] Quoted in News Desk, "Pakistan May Use Any Weapon," The News, May 31, 1999.
[73] Pakistan's Nuclear Weapons Program (http://www.nd.edu/~krocinst/ocpapers/op_18_2.pdf) (PDF)
[74] Options Available to the United States to Counter a Nuclear Iran By George Perkovich (http://www.carnegieendowment.org/

publications/index. cfm?fa=view&id=17967) - Testimony by George Perkovich before the House Armed Services Committee, February 1,

2006
[75] India had deployed Agni during Kargil, Article from "Indian Express" 19/6/2000
[76] "Musharraf moved nuclear weapons in Kargil war" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20071223045736/http://www.nation.com.pk/daily/

july-2006/6/indexl6.php). The Nation. Archived from the original (http://www. nation. com. pk/daily/july-2006/6/indexl6.php) on

2007-12-23. . Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[77] NTI: Country Overview (http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/India/Chemical/2324_2698.html) - Nuclear Threat Initiative
[78] The Spoils of War (http://www.time.com/time/asia/magazine/2000/0410/india.kargil.html), India backs its 'boys' (http://news.bbc.

co.uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/381006.stm)
[79] Centre files second affidavit in Kargil scam (http://www.financialexpress.com/news/Centre-files-second-affidavit-in-Kargil-scam/

131793/) The Financial Express April 14, 2005
[80] Kargil coffin scam (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2001/20011212/edit.htm#2)
[81] War Against Error, Cover story on Outlook, February 28, 2005 ( Online edition (http://www.outlookindia.com/full.

asp?fodname=20050228&fname=Cover+Story+(F)&sid=l))
[82] Army was reluctant to tell govt about Kargil: Tipnis (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/articleshow/2115734.cms) 7 October 2006 -

The Times of India
[83] Fencing Duel (http://www.india-today.com/webexclusive/dispatch/20010421/vinayak.html) - India Today

[84] India Changes Course By Paul R. Dettman Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, 2001, ISBN 0-275-97308-5, Page 117-118
[85] News reports from Daily Times (Pakistan) (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_30-7-2002_pg7_37) and BBC (http:/

/news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/3088780.stm) mentioning the Israeli military support to India during the conflict.
[86] "Kargil : Subrahmanyam Committee's Report" (http://news.indiamart.com/news-analysis/kargil-subrahmanyam-6975.html). Indian

News. . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[87] "Kargil report shows the way" (http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/20000320/ied20064.html). Indian Express. . Retrieved

2009-10-20.
[88] Pg 56-60 Dixit, JN, "India-Pakistan in War & Peace", Routledge, 2002 (http://books.google.co.in/books?id=XnzRttnqExUC)
[89] "The sacking of a Brigadier" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fll813/18130410.htm). Frontline. . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[90] "Scapegoat for the system" (http://www.hindu.com/2001/07/01/stories/0501 1344.htm). The Hindu (Chennai, India). 2001-07-01. .

Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[91] "Army's Kargil inquiry indicts Brig Surinder Singh" (http://www.rediff.com/news/2000/feb/16kargil.htm). Rediff. . Retrieved

2009-10-20.
[92] "THE KARGIL STORY" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fll722/17220240.htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[93] "P.V. Narasimha Rao and the Bomb" (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2004/20041229/edit.htm#6). The Tribune. . Retrieved 2009-10-20.
[94] "Narasimha Rao and the Bomb" (http://www.informaworld.com/smpp/content~content=a791915926~db=all). informaworld. . Retrieved

2009-10-20.

Kargil War 209

[95] Samina Ahmed. "Diplomatic Fiasco: Pakistan's Failure on the Diplomatic Front Nullifies its Gains on the Battlefield" (http://belfercenter.

ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1209/diplomatic_fiasco.html) (Belfer Center for International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government)
[96] Multiple views and opinions on the state of Pakistan's economy, the Kashmir crisis and the military coup (http://www.salon.com/news/

feature/1999/10/13/reacts/print.html), The Promise of Contemporary Pakistan by Faisal Cheema (http://www.acdis.uiuc.edu/Research/

S&Ps/2003-04-Wi/S&P-Wi-2003/promise_pakistan.html)
[97] Samina Ahmed. "A Friend for all Seasons." (http://belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/publication/1002/friend_for_all_seasons.html) (Belfer

Center for International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government)
[98] "Pakistan refuses to take even officers' bodies" (http://www.rediff.eom/news/1999/jul/l lkargl.htm)
[99] "press release issued in New Delhi regarding bodies of two Pakistan Army Officers" (http://www.indianembassy.org/pic/PR_1999/

July_1999/PR_July_15_1999.html)
[100] Second-Class Citizens by M. Ilyas Khan, The Herald (Pakistan), July 2000. Online scanned version of the article (http://www.warbirds.

in/downloads/HeraldKargil.pdf)(PDF)
[101] Musharraf and the truth about Kargil (http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/thscrip/print.pl?file=2006092505001100.htm&

date=2006/09/25/&prd=th&) - The Hindu 25 September 2006
[102] "Over soldier's killed in Kargil: Sharif" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2003/08/17/stories/2003081702900800.htm). The

Hindu. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[103] President Musharraf reacts to Nawaz Sharif s Pakistan's casualty claims in Kargil (http://www.expressindia.com/fullstory.

php?newsid=34665)
[104] Pakistani opposition presses for Sharif s resignation By K. Ratnayake 7 August 1999 (http://www.wsws.org/articles/1999/augl999/

pak-a07.shtml), Can Sharif deliver? (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/389884.stm), Michael Krepon. "The

Stability-Instability Paradox in South Asia" (http://www.stimson.org/southasia/?SN=SA20041217738) - Hosted on Henry L. Stimson

Centre.
[105] Tom Clancy, Gen. Tony Zinni (Retd) and Tony Koltz (2004). Battle Ready. Grosset & Dunlap. ISBN 0-399-15176-1.
[106] Musharraf Vs. Sharif: Who's Lying? (http://www.weeklyvoice.com/site/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1443&

Itemid=66)
[107] Kargil Was Success Only For Pervez (http://farjinews.blogspot.com/2009/07/kargil-was-success-only-for-pervez-only.html)
[108] Select Media Reports from Urdu Media in Pakistan (http://www.ipcs.org/PakMedia05-UAug04.pdf) (PDF)
[109] Kargil was a bigger disaster than 1971 (http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?NewsID=1056536) - Interview of Lt Gen Ali Kuli Khan

Khattak.
[110] Review of Musharraf s memoirs by S. A. Haleem (http://jang.com. pk/thenews/oct2006-weekly/books&people-19-10-2006/index.

html) Jang, October 19, 2006
[111] Victory in reverse: the great climbdown (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/990709.htm), For this submission what gain? (http://

www.dawn.com/weekly/ayaz/990723.htm) by Ayaz Amir - Dawn (newspaper)
[112] PML-N issues white paper on Kargil operation (http://www.thenews.com.pk/top_story_detail.asp?Id=2382) - The News International
[113] Ill-conceived planning by Musharraf led to second major military defeat in Kargil: PML-N (http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.

shtml?15 1668) Pak Tribune, August 6, 2006
[114] Call for Musharraf treason trial By M Ilyas Khan (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/7434427.stm) BBC Newsjune 3, 2008
[115] Lawmakers demand probe into Kargil debacle (http://www.app. com. pk/en_/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&

id=40288&Itemid=2) Associated Press of Pakistan June 3, 2008
[116] MNAs seek probe into Kargil debacle By Naveed Butt (http://www.nation.com.pk/pakistan-news-newspaper-daily-english-online/

Politics/04- Jun-2008/MNAs-seek-probe-into-Kargil-debacle) The Nation
[117] Analysis: Shift in US Kashmir stance? (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/371945.stm), BBC 1999-06-17
[118] Kargil: the morning after By Irfan Husain (http://www.dawn.com/weekly/mazdak/20000429.htm) 29 April 2000 Dawn
[119] EDITORIAL: Kargil: a blessing in disguise? (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_19-7-2004_pg3_l) July 19, 2004

Daily Times, Pakistan
[120] Ill-conceived planning by Musharraf led to second major military defeat in Kargil: PML-N (http://www.paktribune.com/news/index.

shtml?151668) August 6, 2006, PakTribune
[121] "Indo-Pak summit 2001" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20071012153208/http://ppp.org.pk/articles/article30.htm). Pakistan Peoples

Party. 2007-10-12. Archived from the original (http://ppp.org.pk/articles/article30.htm) on 2007-10-12. . Retrieved 2009-05-27.
[122] Indian Army rubbishes Musharraf s Kargil claims (http://www.hindustantimes.com/news/181_1805833, 0008. htm)
[123] "President Musharaffs disclosure on Pakistani Casualties in his book" (http://www.indianexpress.com/story/14208.html). Indian

Express. . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[124] Pakistan army publishes list of army regulars who died in various conflicts (http://www.pakistanarmy.gov.pk/modules/shuhadascorner/

embed_shuhada_list.aspx), November 2010
[125] "Tribune Report on Pakistani POWs" (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/1999/99augl5/nation.htm#9). . Retrieved 2009-05-20.
[126] LOC: Kargil main page on (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0347416/) the website IMDb.

[127] A collection of some reviews on the movie "Lakshya" at (http://www.rottentomatoes.com/m/lakshya/?show=all) Rotten Tomatoes
[128] Bollywood's Kargil — Ihsan Aslam (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/print.asp?page=2004\06\24\story_24-6-2004_pg3_3) Daily Times
[129] (http://www.kannadaaudio.com/Songs/FilmStories/home/Sainika.php)

KargilWar 210

[130] Dhoop (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0387164/) at the Internet Movie Database

[131] "The larger than life director" (http://www.financialexpress.com/old/fe/daily/20000219/flel3016.html). Financial Express. February

19, 2000. .
[132] Tango Charlie (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0444913/) at the Internet Movie Database
[133] Keerthi Chakra (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0485922/) at the Internet Movie Database

Footnotes

• Note (I): Names for the conflict: There have been various names for the conflict. During the actual fighting in
Kargil, the Indian Government was careful not to use the term "war", calling it a "war-like situation", even though
both nations indicated that they were in a "state of war". Terms like Kargil "conflict", Kargil "incident" or the
official military assault, "Operation Vijay", were thus preferred. After the end of the war however, the Indian
Government increasingly called it the "Kargil War", even though there had been no official declaration of war.
Other less popularly used names included "Third Kashmir War" and Pakistan's codename given to the infiltration:
"Operation Badr".

References

• Asymmetric Warfare in South Asia: The Cause and Consequences of the 1999 Limited War in Kargil (http://
www. Cambridge. org/aus/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=9780521767217&ss=fro) the CCC Kargil Project.

• Kargil Conflict (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/kargil-99.htm) (GlobalSecurity.org)

• Limited Conflict Under the Nuclear Umbrella (http://www.rand.org/publications/MR/MR1450/) (RAND
Corporation)

• War in Kargil (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/war_in_kargil.pdf) (Center for Contemporary
Conflict) PDF download

• Essay on the outcomes of the Kargil War (http://www.jammu-kashmir.com/archives/archives 1999/
99august05.html)

• Stephen P. Cohen (2004). The Idea of Pakistan. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 0-8157-1502-1.

• Kargil Review Committee (2000). From Surprise to Reckoning: The Kargil Review Committee Report. SAGE
Publications. ISBN 0-7619-9466-1. (Executive summary of the report, Online) (http://www.fas.org/news/
india/2000/25indi 1 .htm)

• Limited War with Pakistan: Will It Secure India's Interests? (http://acdis.illinois.edu/publications/207/
publication-LimitedWarwithPakistanWillItSecureIndiasInterests.html) ACDIS Occasional Paper by Suba
Chandran, Published 2004 by Program in Arms Control, Disarmament, and International Security (ACDIS),
University of Illinois.

• An Analysis of the Kargil Conflict 1999, by [[Shaukat Qadir (http://www.ccc.nps.navy.mil/research/kargil/
JA00199.pdf)], RUSI Journal, April 2002] (PDF)

• V.P. Malik (2006). Kargil; From Surprise to Victory. Harper Collins, New Delhi, India..

KargilWar 211

Further reading

• M. K. Akbar (1999). Kargil Cross Border Terrorism. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-7099-734-8.

• Amarinder Singh (2001). A Ridge Too Far: War in the Kargil Heights 1999. Motibagh Palace, Patiala. ASIN:
B0006E8KKW.

• Jasjit Singh (1999). Kargil 1999: Pakistan's Fourth War for Kashmir. South Asia Books. ISBN 81-86019-22-7.

• J. N. Dixit (2002). India-Pakistan in War & Peace. Books Today. ISBN 0-415-30472-5.

• Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Its role and Rule (A History of the Pakistan Army From Independence to Kargil
1947-1999). Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh. Pennsylvania, USA.. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.

Ranjan Kumar Singh. SarhadZero Mile. Parijat Prakashan.. ISBN 81-903561-0-0.

External links

• Indian Armed Forces site on Kargil (http://indianarmy.nic.in/arkargil/welcome.html)

• Animated timeline and other Kargil stories (http://www.india-today.com/kargil/) - India Today

• Impact of the conflict on civilians (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/401931.stm) - BBC

• The Day A Nuclear Conflict Was Averted (http://yaleglobal.yale.edu/display. article ?id=4506) — YaleGlobal
Online

• Kargil Debacle: Musharrafs Time Bomb, Waiting to Explode (http://www.satribune.antisystemic.org/www.
satribune.com/archives/august04/Pl_rauf.htm)

• Brief analysis of the Kargil conflict (http://www.csis.org/media/csis/pubs/saml2.pdf) by Center for Strategic
and International Studies (PDF)

• Kargil— nine years on (http://www.thenews.com.pk/daily_detail.asp?id=l 10941)The News International,
Pakistan

• POSTCARD USA: Kargil, Kargil everywhere (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.
asp?page=story_25-7-2004_pg3_4) - Pakistan's Daily Times

• Pakistan's lessons from its Kargil War (http://web.archive.Org/web/20071012085214/http://www.saag.org/
papers 13/paperl231. html)

• Video of Pakistani PoWs from the conflict (http://youtube. com/watch ?v=X3FJP4iOJM8&mode=related&
search=)

• Video - Tiger hill, Kargil hill's turning point (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l-rZl-DWcyg)

• Video of Indian army handling over bodies of Pakistani soldiers to Pak army (http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=E7HkMaGsSRQ)

212

War progress

Kargil order of battle

The following is the order of battle of both the Indian and Pakistani troops during the Kargil War. While the
Indian orbat is based on publications by Indian authors, sourced from official sources and newspaper reports, the
Pakistan orbat is based on Indian Intelligence reports. It must also be noted that Pakistani orbat does not include the
separatist fighters who were also involved in fighting atop the peaks of Kargil.

Indian Orbat
Indian Army

Northern Command

• XV Corps

• XV Corps Artillery Brigade

• HQ 8 Mountain Division (ex Sharifabad, Valley)

• 8 Mountain Artillery Brigade (division artillery)

• 121 (Independent) Infantry Brigade Group

16 Grenadiers

4Jat

3 Punjab

10 Garhwal

BSFBn

Det 17 Guards (ATGM)

56 Mountain Brigade (Matayan) (part of division)

16 Grenadiers
18 Grenadiers

8 Sikh

1 Naga

2 Raj Rif
18 Garhwal
BJAKRif
1/3 GR

9 Para Cdos
Det 17 Guards (ATGM)

50 (Independent) Parachute Brigade (ex Army HQ Reserves)

• 6 Parachute

• 7 Parachute

• 1 Parachute Commandos

• Det 19 Guards (ATGM)

192 Mountain Brigade (part of division)

• 18 Grenadiers

Kargil order of battle

213

• 8 Sikh

• 9 Para Cdos

• Det 17 Guards (ATGM)

79 Mountain Brigade (Dras) (part of division)

17Jat
28 RR
12 Mahar
BJAKRif
2Naga

9 Para Cdos
Det 17 Guards (ATGM)

3 Infantry Division (Leh)

• 3 Artillery Brigade (divisional artillery)

• 70 Infantry Brigade Group (ex Demchok, China border) (regularly assigned to division)

1/11 GR

12 JAK LI

10 Para Cdos
1 Bihar

Ladakh Scouts
17 Garhwal
5 Para

14 Sikh
Det 19 Guards (ATGM)

102 (Independent) Infantry Brigade Group (Shyok River Valley) (normally under command 3 Division)

1 1 Rajputana Rifles
9 Mahar

13 Kumaon
27 Rajput

Det High Altitude Warfare School Permanent Cadre
Det 19 Guards (ATGM)

Kargil Theatre Artillery (these arty units took part in the War serving under various formations)

Lt = Light; Fd = Field; Med = Medium; Hvy Mor = Heavy Mortar

4 Fd Regt

15 Fd Regt
41 FdRegt
108 Med Regt
139 Med Regt
141 Fd Regt
153 Med Regt
158 Med Regt
197 Fd Regt
212 Rocket Regt
244 Hvy Mor Regt
253 Med Regt
255 Fd Regt

Kargil order of battle

214

286 Med Regt
305 Med Regt
307 Med Regt
315 Fd Regt
1861 LtRegt
1889 Lt Regt

Other battalions

5 Special Frontier Force (Vikas Force)
663 Reconnaissance & Observation Squadron
668 Reconnaissance & Observation Squadron
Ladakh Scouts: Karakoram & India Wings

13 Punjab
12 Grenadiers
22 Grenadiers
7 Jat (may have been mistaken)

14 Sikh LI (may have been mistaken)
9 Rashtriya Rifles
14 Rashtriya Rifles
17 Rashtriya Rifles
11 Sikh
3 J&K Rifles
16 Dogras
Dogra Scouts
5 Rajput
9 Mahar

Indian Air Force

Apart from the involvement of the Indian Army, the Indian Air Force (IAF) also participated in the Kargil War as
part of Operation Safed Sagar.

Pakistan orbat

5 NLI battalion

6 NLI battalion

12 NLI battalion 1

13 NLI battalion

[21

24 SIND
27 SIND

[3]
[2]

Kargil order of battle 215

References

[1] This list is compiled from newspaper and casualty reports.
[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nishan_i_Haider
[3] In the FCNA region from October 1998 onwards

Source

• Indian Army — Kargil War 1999 v. 2.0 8 March 2006 (http://www.ordersofbattle.darkscape.net/site/history/
index.html) Mandeep S. Bajwa & Ravi Rikhye

• Kargil Committee Report Executive Summary (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/KargilRCA.html)

216

Nuclear conflict

Smiling Buddha

Pokhran-I
Operation Smiling Buddha

Country

India

Test site

Pokhran

Period

May 1974

Number of tests

1

Test type

Underground tests

Device type

Fission

Max. yield

8 kilotons of TNT (unknown operator:

u'strong' TJ)

Navigation

Previous test

None

Next test

Pokhran-II

Smiling Buddha, formally designated as Pokhran-I, was the codename given to the Republic of India's first

nuclear test explosion that took place at the long-constructed Indian Army base, Pokhran Test Range at Pokhran

121
municipality, Rajasthan state on 18 May 1974 at 8:05 a.m. (1ST). It was also the first confirmed nuclear test by a

nation outside the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council. The explosive yield of the bomb

131
was reported to be 8 kt.

History

The nuclear weapons efforts were remarkably established in 1944 by Homi J. Bhabha who founded the nuclear

[41

institute Institute of Fundamental Research in 1944. Nuclear physicist Piara Singh Gill also returned to the country

from the United States after participating in the Manhattan Project in 1945. Physicists such as Chandrasekhara

141
Raman and Satyendra Bose later went on to play an integral role in the research of nuclear weapons technology.

After Indian independence, Prime Minister Jawarharalal Nehru authorized the development of a nuclear programme
headed by Homi J. Bhabha; the Atomic Energy Act of 1948 focuses on peaceful development. India was heavily
involved in the development of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, but ultimately opted not to sign.

We must develop this atomic energy quite apart from war - indeed I think we must develop it for the purpose
of using it for peaceful purposes. ... Of course, if we are compelled as a nation to use it for other purposes,
possibly no pious sentiments of any of us will stop the nation from using it that way

[41

— Jawaharalal Nehru — 1st Premier of Republic of India,

In 1954, Bhabha moved the nuclear programme in a direction towards weapons design and production. Bhabha
established two important infrastructure projects - the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre at Mumbai and the
Department of Atomic Energy (DAE) of which Bhabha was its first secretary. Between the period of 1954 to 1959,
the nuclear programme grew swiftly and by 1958 the DAE had 1/3 of the defence budget for research purposes. In
1954, the United States and Canada, as part of the Atoms for Peace policy, agreed to provide and established the
small research reactor, CIRUS, also at Trombay. Acquisition of CIRUS was a watershed event in nuclear

Smiling Buddha 217

proliferation, with understanding between India and the United States that the reactor would be used for research

purposes only. The CIRUS was an ideal facility to develop the plutonium bomb, therefore Nehru had refused to

mi
accept the nuclear fuel from Canada, and started the programme to develop the ingenious nuclear fuel cycle.

In 1962, the nuclear programme continued to develop, but at slow rate. Nehru was distracted by the Sino-Indian
War, but lost territory after China had successfully annexed the territory after launching a successful assault.
Nehru turned to the Soviet Union for help but it was facing the missile crisis. The Soviet Politburo turned down

Ml

Nehru's request for weapon supply and continued backing the Chinese. The legacy of this war left an impression

M]

on India that the Soviet Union was an unreliable ally, therefore a nuclear deterrence was felt necessary at that time.
Design work began in 1965 under Bhabha but later proceeded by Raja Ramanna who took over the programme after
former's death.

However, the nuclear programme came to a halt after Lai Bahadur Shastri became the prime minister after Nehru's
death. Shastri faced a another war, this time with West Pakistan (now Pakistan). Shastri appointed Doctor Vikram
Sarabhai as the head of nuclear programme, but because of his Gandhian beliefs, Sarabhai focused the programme to
be developed into more peaceful purposes rather than the military applications.

In 1967, after Indira Gandhi became the prime minister, the work on nuclear programme resumed with new a

Mi
attitude and goals. Homi Sethna, a chemical engineer, played a significant role in the development of

weapon-grade plutonium while Ramanna designed and manufactured the whole nuclear device. Because of the

sensitivity, the first nuclear bomb project did not employ more than 75 scientists.

India continued to harbor ambivalent feelings about nuclear weapons and accord low priority to their production
until the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. In the same month of December 1971, when Richard Nixon sent a carrier
battle group led by the USS Enterprise (CVN-65) into the Bay of Bengal in an attempt to intimidate India, the Soviet
Union responded by sending a submarine armed with nuclear missiles from Vladivostok to trail the US task force.
The Soviet response demonstrated the deterrent value and significance of nuclear weapons and ballistic missile
submarines to Indira Gandhi.

On 7 September 1972, Indira Gandhi authorized the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC) to manufacture a
nuclear device and prepare it for a test. Throughout its development, ti
Nuclear Explosive", but it was usually referred to as the Smiling Buddha.

nuclear device and prepare it for a test. Throughout its development, the device was formally called the "Peaceful

Development team

The head of the development team was Raja Ramanna. Other key personnel included P. K. Iyengar, Rajagopala
Chidambaram, Nagapattinam Sambasiva Venkatesan, and Waman Dattatreya Patwardhan under the supervision of
Homi N. Sethna. Chidambaram, who would later coordinate work on the Pokhran-II tests, began work on the
equation of state of plutonium in late 1967 or early 1968. To preserve secrecy, the project employed no more than 75
scientists and engineers from 1967—1974. Dr. Abdul Kalam also arrived at the test site as the representative of

the TBRL although he had no role whatsoever in the development of the nuclear bomb or even in the nuclear
programme.

Role of Indian Nuclear Research Institutes

The device used a implosion system developed at the DRDO Terminal Ballistics Research Laboratory (TBRL) in
Chandigarh based on the Fat Man design. The detonation system was developed at the High Energy Materials
Research Laboratory (HEMRL) of DRDO at Pune. The 6 kg of plutonium came from the CIRUS reactor at BARC.
The neutron initiator was of polonium-beryllium type and code-named Flower. The complete core was assembled in
Trombay before transportation to the test site.

Smiling Buddha 218

Cross-section of the device

The fully assembled device had a hexagonal cross section, 1.25 meter in diameter and weighed 1400 kg. The device
was detonated at 8.05 a.m. in a shaft 107 m under the army Pokhran test range in the Thar Desert (or Great Indian
Desert), Rajasthan. Coordinates of the crater are 27°05'42"N 71°45'11"E.

Controversial yield

The yield of this test has remained controversial with unclear data provided by Indian sources. Although occasional
press reports have given ranges from 20 kt to as low as 2 kt, the official yield was initially reported at 12 kt (post
Operation Shakti claims have raised it to 13 kt). Outside seismic data and analysis of the crater features indicates a
lower figure. Analysts usually estimate the yield at 4 to 6 kt using conventional seismic magnitude-to-yield
conversion formulas. In recent years, both Homi Sethna and P.K. Iyengar conceded the official yield to be an
exaggeration. Iyengar has variously stated that the yield was actually 8—10 kt, that the device was designed to yield
10 kt, and that the yield was 8 kt 'exactly as predicted'. Careful analysis of hard rock cratering effects establishes a
tight bound around 8 kt for the yield.

Code name

The project's code name was Smiling Buddha and the detonation was scheduled to occur on 18 May 1974 (the
official test date), Buddha Jayanti, a festival day in India marking the birth of Gautama Buddha.

Aftermath

In 1975, Homi Sethna (chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission), Raja Ramanna and Basanti Dulal
Nagchaudhuri (Scientific Advisor of the DRDO) received the Padma Vibhushan - India's second highest civilian
award. Five other project members received the Padma Shri - India's fourth highest civilian award.

International reaction

While India continued to state that the test was for peaceful purposes, it was shown opposition from many corners.
The Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) was formed in reaction to the Indian tests to check international nuclear
proliferation. The NSG decided in 1992 to require full-scope IAEA safeguards for any new nuclear export
deals, which effectively ruled out nuclear exports to India, but in 2008 waived this restriction on nuclear trade
with India as part of the Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement.

Pakistan

Pakistan did not view the test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion", and canceled talks scheduled for June 10 on
normalization of relations. Pakistan's Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto vowed in June 1974 that he would never
succumb to "nuclear blackmail" or accept "Indian hegemony or domination over the subcontinent". The

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission Chairman Munir Ahmed Khan said that the test would force Pakistan to test its

ri4i
own nuclear bomb. Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist, Pervez Hoodbhoy, stated in 201 1 that he believes the test

"pushed [Pakistan] further into the nuclear arena".

United States and Canada

The plutonium used in the test was created at the CIRUS reactor supplied by Canada and using heavy water supplied
by the United States. Both countries reacted negatively, especially in light of then ongoing negotiations on the
Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty and the economic aid both countries provided to India. Canada concluded

that the test violated a 1971 understanding between the two states, and froze nuclear energy assistance for the two
heavy water reactors then under construction. The United States concluded that the test did not violate any

Smiling Buddha 219

agreement and proceeded with a June 1974 shipment of enriched uranium for the Tarapur reactor.

Soviet Union

ri7i

The Soviet Union did not issue any statement, remaining silent in support of India.

France

ri7i
France sent a congratulatory telegram to India but later on withdrew it.

China

China, itself a member of the nuclear club since 1964, issued no comment on the test.

Effects

The CIRUS reactor used to produce the plutonium was a research reactor based on the NRX design and donated by
Canada in 1960, with heavy water supplied by the US; ("CIRUS" = Canada-India Research U.S.). The Smiling
Buddha test caused a public outcry in Canada, and in May 1976 the Canadian government cut off exchange of
nuclear materials and technology with India in the wake of the test.

Pokhran-II

After the test, India continued expanding its nuclear power capacity and developing its nuclear physics programme,
but made no further nuclear tests until 1998. Operation Shakti was carried out two months after the 1998 elections at
the Pokhran test site, and used devices designed and built over the preceding two decades.

References

[I] There are many code-names for this test. But it was officially known as Smiling Buddha by Indira Gandhi who witnessed this test. Civilian
scientists called this test as "Operation Smiling Buddha" while Indian Army referred this test as Operation Happy Krishna. According to the
United States Military Intelligence Corps, Operation Happy Krishna was codename for Indian Army to build the underground site in which
the tests were taken. On other side, Indian Ministry of External Affairs designated this test as Pokhran-I.

[2] 8:05 18 May 1974 (1ST)

[3] "India's Nuclear Weapons Program - Smiling Buddha: 1974" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaSmiling.html). Nuclear Weapon

Archive. .
[4] Sublette, Carey. "Origins of Indian nuclear program" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaOrigin.html). Nuclear weapon Archive.

http://nuclearweaponarchive.org. . Retrieved 13 November 2011.
[5] Perkovich, George (2002). India 's nuclear bomb: the impact on global proliferation. University of California Press.

ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5.
[6] Kanavi, Shivanand. "How Indian PMs reacted to nuclear bombs" (http://www.rediff.com/news/slide-show/

slide-show-l-an-interview-with-k-subrahmanyam/20110210.htm). Shivanand Kanavi. . Retrieved 13 November 2011.
[7] "Arihant: the annihilator" (http://www.indiandefencereview.com/2010/02/arihant-the-annihilator.html). Indian Defence Review.

2010-10-25. . Retrieved 2012-01-08.
[8] Richelson, Jefferey T. (March 1999). Spying on the Bomb: American Nuclear Intelligence from Nazi Germany to Iran and North Korea. WW

Norton, pp. 233. ISBN 978-0-393-05383-8.
[9] "History of the NSG" (http://www.nuclearsuppliersgroup.org/Leng/01-history.htm). Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG). . Retrieved 4

December 2011.
[10] "NUCLEAR SUPPLIERS GROUP (NSG)" (http://www.nti.org/e_research/official_docs/inventory/pdfs/nsg.pdf). Nuclear Threat

Initiative (NTI). . Retrieved 4 December 201 1.

[II] Agencies (2 October 2008). "Nuclear Deal: A chronology of key developments" (http://www.indianexpress.com/news/
nuclear-deal-a-chronology-of-key-developmen/368607/). The Indian Express. . Retrieved 5 September 2011.

[12] APP and Pakistan Television (PTV), Prime minister Secretariat Press Release (18 May, 1974). "India's so-called Peaceful Nuclear Explosion
(PNE) is tested and designed to intimidate and establish "Indian hegemony in the subcontinent", most particularly Pakistan. ...Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto, Prime minister of Pakistan, on May of 1974." (http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Pakistan/Nuclear/chronology_1974.html)
(html). Statement published on Associated Press of Pakistan and the on-aired on Pakistan Television (PTV). .

[13] video of Prime Minister Bhutto's address in response to the Smiling Buddha test (http://www.pakdef.info/multimedia/bhutto_address.
wmv)

Smiling Buddha

220

[14] Khan, Munir Ahmad (18 May, 1974). ""India's nuclear explosion: Challenge and Response"" (HTML). Munir Ahmad Khan, Chairman of

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, and former director of the IAEA Reactor Division. International Atomic Energy Agency and Pakistan

Atomic Energy Commission.
[15] Hoodbhoy, PhD (Nuclear Physics), Pervez Amerali (Januar 23rd, 201 1). "Pakistan's nuclear bayonet" (http://www.dawn.com/201 1/02/

16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html) (HTML). Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy, Doctor of Philosophy (Nuclear Physics), Professor of

Nuclear and High-Energy Physics at the Quaid-e-Azam University and Senior academic research scientist at the National Center for Nuclear

Physics. Dr. Prof. Pervez Amerali Hoodbhoy and the The Herald. . Retrieved September 9, 2011.
[16] Press Report, Associated (22 May 1974). "Ripples in the nuclear pond" (http://news. google. com/newspapers ?id=x6ZSAAAAIBAJ&

sjid=LX8DAAAAIBAJ&pg=7191,5606996). The Desert News. . Retrieved 5 September 2011.
[17] ANDERSON, ROBERT (Volume 17 - Issue 13, June 24 - July 07, 2000). "Who is smiling now?" (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/

fll713/17130760.htm). Frontline, The Hindu. . Retrieved 12 March 2012.
[18] Reed, Thomas C; Danny B. Stillman (2009). The nuclear express: a political history of the bomb and its proliferation. Zenith.

ISBN 978-0-7603-3502-4.

Kirana Hills

The Kirana Hills is a small mountain range in Pakistan's Punjab province. It spans approximately 40 miles across
the districts of Sargodha and Jhang.

Topography

The highest peak in the Kirana Hills is Koh-e-Kirana,
which is about 980 feet high. The region is also known
as "Black Mountains" by locals because of the dark
brown colours of the range. The Kirana Hills and its
environs are heavily infested with wild boar.

Science in Kirana

Kirana-I

A rocky blackish mountain of Kirana Range in the outskirts of Rabwah.

Country

Information

Pakistan

Test site

Kirana Weapon-testing laboratories

Kirana Hills

221

Period

1983-1990

Number of tests

24

Test type

Underground
subcritical tests

Device type

Non-fission

Max. yield

N/A; Classified

Navi

Ration

Previous test

None

Next test

Chagai-I

Kirana-I were the series of 24 cold-tests conducted by Pakistan from 1983 till 1990. The tests were primarily
conducted by Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission for the purposes of studying effects of nuclear detonation, with
armed forces' playing a supporting role. The weapon-testing programme was kept in extreme secrecy with only few
in the government knowing about it. The tests proved the capability of Pakistan to have successfully developed the
atomic bomb project and to perform the tests without outside interference.

Orgnizations

The development, designing and construction of the weapon-testing laboratories at this region was initiated by
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission's Munir Ahmad Khan, as its technical director, and Major-General Zahid Ali
Akbar, as Military director of the Civil engineers Corps. Several meetings between civilian Pakistan Atomic
Energy Commission officials and military officials of Corps of Engineers took place before starting the work. Finally
having started in 1979, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) and the Corps of Engineers completed the
construction of the weapon-testing laboratories in 1983, and it was named as Kirana Weapon-testing laboratories
(Kirana-WTL). The tunnels and weapon-testing laboratories were reported as have been bored after the Chagai
weapon-testing labs and as similar to Chagai, the underground tunnels and weapons-testing laboratories at Kirana
Hills had been bored and then sealed and this task was also undertaken by SDW.

The "Special Development Works", codename SDW, was a specially commissioned military unit of renowned
Pakistan's military scientists and engineers founded by Brigadier Muhammad Sarfaraz in 1977. The SDW was
responsible for the construction of the weapon-test sites and the military scientists of the SDW had closely their
logistics support to PAEC in the developmental phases of the atomic bomb project. A joint task force was given
commissioned with SDW and had Air Vice-Marshal (Major-General) Michale O'Brian, Major-General Zahid Ali
Akbar, and Rear-Admiral Iftikhar Sirohey as its test commanders. The SDW had small number of engineer officers,
but extremely capable of achieving tasks and put under joint-task force's command. The weapon-testing labs were
established and constructed under the command of air marshal O'Brian in the region that is generally closed to public
due to its high-rate of human disappearance and wild-life.

Kirana Hills

222

Preparations

The weapon-testing laboratories were carefully
established and built by the military engineering
formations. The military had long realized that United
States' growing suspicion on secret military projects,
therefore, the labs were constructed and built at night
and quickly paced up the work before the sunrise. This
was done to avoid the American Vela satellite to pick
up the advancement and to avoid alerting the civil
population inhabitant in the area. The weapon-testing
labs were heavily guarded by the joint task forces and
the tourism activities in the designated areas were
closed for the public.

The PAEC had been monitoring the establishment of the weapon-testing labs and dispatched a small team of
scientists from the Radiation Physics Division (RPD), assisted by the joint task force teams. The teams were sent to
de-seal, open and clean the tunnels and to make sure the tunnels were clear of the wild boars that are found in
abundance in the Sargodha region. The damage which these wild boars could do to men and equipment, computer
facilities, and laboratories.

Tests predictions

After the preparations were done and tunnels were cleared out, the RPD along with their Military units joined the

PAEC's Diagnostic Team, under dr. Samar Mubarakmand who arrived on the scene with trailers fitted with

T21
supercomputers and diagnostic equipments installed in the vans. They were followed by Wah Group Scientists

under dr. Zaman Shaikh and DTD under Hafeez Qureshi, with the nuclear device in sub assembly form. The device

T21
was placed in the weapon-testing laboratory-I (WTL-I). monitoring system was set up with around 20 cables

T21
linking various parts of the device with oscillators in diagnostic vans parked near the Kirana Hills.

The device was tested using the push-button technique set in vintage style. The first test was to see whether the
triggering mechanism created the necessary neutrons which would start a fission chain-reaction in the actual

device. However, when the button was pushed, most of the wires connecting the device to the oscillators were

T21
severed due to errors committed in the preparation of the cables. At first, it was thought that the device had

malfunctioned but closer scrutiny of two of the oscillators confirmed that the neutrons had indeed come out and a

chain-reaction had taken place

[2]

Test teams and development

The series of 24 different cold tests were conducted by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission chaired by Munir

T21
Ahmad Khan. This secret weapon-testings operation was coined Kirana-I by nuclear physicist dr. Ishfaq Ahmad

who was the laboratories director and technical member at the PAEC. Other PAEC's test development personnel and

teams included Hafeez Qureshi — director of the Directorate of Technical Development; Dr. Zaman Sheikh, director

of the Wah Group Scientists (WGS); Dr. Naeem Ahmad Khan — director of Radiation and Isotope Applications

Division (RIAD); Dr. Masud Ahmad — director of Theoretical Physics Group (TPG); and Dr. Samar Mubarakmand,

director of the Diagnostic Group (Diag Grp).

The tunnels at Kirana Hills, Sargodha, are reported to have been bored after the Chagai nuclear test sites, it is widely
believed that the tunnels were constructed sometime between 1979 and 1983. As in Chagai, the tunnels at Kirana
Hills had been bored and then sealed and this task was also undertaken by PAEC's DTD

r-\

Kirana Hills 223

As a result, between 1983 and 1990, the PAEC's Wah Group and DTD conducted more than 24 cold tests of the
nuclear device at Kirana Hills with the help of mobile diagnostic equipment. These tests were carried out in 24
tunnels measuring 100—150 feet in length which were bored inside the Kirana.

The explosive HMX (His Majesty's Explosive), which was used to trigger the device. The HMX nuclear device was
tested by DTD led by Hafeez Qureshi. The successful cold fission test was led and supervised by renowned physicist
dr. Ishfaq Ahmad, and it was witnessed by PAEC chairman Munir Ahmad Khan, Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali
Akbar Khan, Air-Vice Marshal (Major-General) Michael John O'Brian, General Khalid Mahmud Arif, and
then-Chairman of Senate of Pakistan, Ghulam Ishaq Khan.

Results and aftermath

The need to improve and perfect the design of first nuclear device required constant testing. As a result, between
1983 and 1990, the Wah Group Scientists conducted more than 24 cold tests of the nuclear device at Kirana Hills
with the help of mobile diagnostic equipment. These tests were carried out in 24 horizontal-shaft designated
weapon-testing laboratories measuring 100—150 feet in length which were bored inside the Kirana Hills. Later due to
excessive US intelligence and satellite focus on the Kirana Hills regions, it was abandoned and the WTL-I was
shifted to the Kala-Chitta Range.

Development and the test teams
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission

Mr. Munir Ahmed Khan - Chairman, Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)

Dr. Ishfaq Ahmad - Member (Technical) of PAEC.

Dr. Samar Mubarakmand - Director-General of the Diagnostics Group of PAEC (DG)

Mr. Hafeez Qureshi - Director-General of the Directorate of Technical Development (DTD)

Dr. Zaman Sheikh -Directorate-General of the Wah Group of PAEC (WG).

Dr. Naeem Ahmad Khan - Director-General of Radiation and Isotope Applications Division (RIAD).

Dr. Hameed Ahmed Khan - Director-General of the Radiation Physics Division (RPD).

Dr. Masud Ahmad - Director-General of Theoretical Physics Group (TPG).

Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers

• Lieutenant-General Zahid Ali Akbar, PA - Engineer-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army Engineering Core.

Special Works Development

• Major-General Michael John O'Brian, PAF — Director-General of the Special Works Development

• Brigadier-General Muhammad Sarfaraz, PA — Deputy Director of Special Works Development

Government Observants

• General Khalid Mahmud Arif PA — Vice Chief of Army Staff

• Ghulam Ishaq Khan, SP — Chairman of Senate of Pakistan, Ghulam Ishaq Khan

• Vice-Admiral Iftihar Ahmad Sirohey, PN — Directorate-General Naval Weapon Engineering Branch (WEB).

Kirana Hills

224

References

[1] "Analysis: Custodians as proliferators" (http://observerindia.com/cms/sites/orfonline/modules/analysis/AnalysisDetail.

html?cmaid=2237&mmacmaid=182). Observer Research Foundation. Observer Research Foundation. 13 August 2004. . Retrieved 201 1.
[2] "Koh Kambaran (Ras Koh Hills)" (http://www.pakistanpaedia.com/landmarks/RasKoh/Youm-e-Takbeer.htm). Pakistan Encyclopedia.

Pakistan Information and History Encyclopedia. .
[3] name="The Nation 2009">"Pakistan Became a Nuclear State in 1983-Dr. Samar", The Nation, (Islamabad) May 2, 2003 accessed on August

6, 2009

Pokhran-II

Pokhran-II
Operation Shakti

Image of Shaft-Ill named Shakti

Information

Country

India

Test site

Indian Army Pokhran Test Range

Period

11 May 1998

Number of tests

5

Test type

Underground tests

Device type

Fission/fusion

Max. yield

Claimed 58Kt by BARC, Independent assessment put it at 45Kt.

Navigation

Previous test

Operation Smiling Buddha

Next test

None

Pokharan-II refers to test explosions of five nuclear devices, three on 11 May and two on 13 May 1998, conducted
by India at the Pokhran test range. These nuclear tests resulted in a variety of sanctions against India by a number of
major states.

On 18 May 1974, India exploded its first nuclear device code named Operation Smiling Buddha. After about a
quarter century, on 11 May 1998, Operation Shakti was carried out. Shakti was the codename of a thermonuclear
device that was exploded in Pokhran as part of Pokhran-II.

Birth of India's nuclear weapons program

The Indian nuclear programme dated back to 1944 when Homi Bhabha established the Institute of Fundamental
Research in 1945. Under the long premiership of Nehru, the nuclear programme's infrastructure was carefully
established, and much of the weapon related facilities given commissioned in 1950s, most notably Bhabha Atomic
Research Centre that operates the CIRUS which was commissioned in 1960.

In 1962, India faced the bitter war with People's Republic of China and lost the territory it had controlled previously.
Soon, the Chinese nuclear test, 596 in 1964 accelerated India's nuclear weapon efforts to counter the Chinese nuclear
blackmailing. Preliminary studies were carried out at the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre and plans were developed
to produce plutonium and other bomb components. Following the death of Nehru and Bhabha, the programme was
revived and transferred into the hands of Vikram Sarabhai who also was the director of Indian Space Research
Organization (ISRO). However, under the premiership of Lai Bahadur Shastri who faced the war with West-Pakistan

Pokhran-II 225

(now Pakistan) had the nuclear programme shelved and halted. This programme was again revived and re-started
under the premiership of Indira Gandhi who gave the authorization soon after the Test No. 6 — China's successful
detonation of thermonuclear device. The programme was delegated to Raja Ramanna who aggressively developed
the nuclear weapons and the nuclear programme completed a milestone in 1972. In 1974, Indira Gandhi gave
authorization of the nuclear test, codename Smiling Buddha.

After the 1974 test, Prime Minister Morarji Desai shelved the programme and focused it to more academic research

rather than military initiatives. By 1977, Ramanna was replaced by Homi Sethna as the director of BARC and

T21
unsuccessfully attempted to thwart Ramanna's efforts. In 1980, Indira Gandhi returned as the Prime Minister and

re-evaluated the programme by bringing back Ramanna's role in the nuclear programme. Despite Gandhi's denial to

conduct further tests, the nuclear programme continued to advance. It was the 1980s that the work on hydrogen

bombs and the missile programme was initiated, and Dr. Abdul Kalam, an aerospace engineer who developed the

SLV programme for ISRO, was made the director of the missile programme.

Successive governments in India decided to observe this temporary moratorium for fear of inviting international

[2] [31

criticism. In 1995, Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao decided to carry out further tests. But the plans were

halted after American satellites picked up signs of preparations for testing at Pokhran. The Americans under

T31
President Bill Clinton exerted enormous pressure on Rao to stop the preparations. On February 28, the BJP came

to power after the 1998 elections, and Atal Bihari Vajpayee became country's prime minister who had previously

campaign on advocating for nuclear tests. On March 1998, Vajpayee administration asked the scientists to make

preparations in a shortest time possible, and preparations were hastily made. Finally, on 11 and 13 May 1998,

under prime minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee, India conducted its second group of nuclear tests.

Preparations for the test

After the detection of the test preparations by American satellites in 1995, it was decided that preparations for the
May 1998 tests should be undertaken under a blanket of secrecy so that foreign countries will not be able to detect
the preparations. Extensive planning was drawn out and executed in order to deceive intelligence agencies around
the world. Even the senior most cabinet members of the Government of India did not have slightest hint of these
elaborate preparations. The preparations were managed by a closed group of scientists, military officers and
politicians.

Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister, and Dr. R. Chidambaram, the head of the
Department of Atomic Energy, were the chief coordinators for the operation. They were assisted by the 58th
Regiment of the Army Engineering Corps in preparing the test site. Scientists from the Bhabha Atomic Research
Centre (BARC) and the Defence Research and Development Organization (DRDO) were involved in assembling the
weapons, moving them to Pokhran, placing them into shafts in the ground and laying a network of sensors to gather
data during the explosions.

The Regiment 58 Engineers had learned much since the aborted 1995 test preparations about avoiding detection by
American satellites. Much work was done at night, and heavy equipment was always returned to the same parking
spot at dawn so that satellite image analysts would conclude that the equipment was never moved. Piles of dug-out
sand were shaped to mimic the wind shaped dune forms in the desert area. The shafts were dug under camouflage
netting. When cables for sensors were laid they were carefully covered with sand, and native vegetation was replaced
to conceal the digging.

The scientists involved in the operation took care to ensure that even their close friends and colleagues would not
detect the work being undertaken at Pokhran. All scientists involved in the operation did not depart for Pokhran
simultaneously, but left in groups of two or three. One group would use the pretext of attending a seminar or a
conference, and would tell their wives that they could not be contacted while they were away. Tickets were bought
for a destination other than Pokhran (or cities nearby) under pseudonyms, and after arriving at their destination, the
group would secretly leave for the military base in Jaisalmer from where they would be taken by the army to

Pokhran-II 226

Pokhran. After finishing their work the group would return, retracing their path. Then another group would leave for
the range employing similar means to do their work. In this way, information about the test was kept tightly under
wraps. All technical staff at the range wore military fatigues, so that in satellite images they would appear to be
military personnel maintaining the test range.

On the diplomatic front, India adopted a policy of ambiguity about deciding to go nuclear. Statements by Indian
politicians and diplomats gave an impression to the world that India was not yet decided about its nuclear status.
Deliberate steps were taken to ensure that the world community would not take the BJP's campaign promises
seriously. In separate meetings with American officials, then Foreign secretary K.Raghunath and Defence Minister
George Fernandes stated that India had not yet decided about going nuclear and they also conveyed to the officials
that the National Security Council would be meeting soon to discuss the matter and decide about the nuclear option.
The council was to meet on the 26th of May. Both the Indian officials had categorically told the Americans that
"there would be no surprise testings". All this led the Americans and the world community to believe that India was
not going to pursue the nuclear option in the near future. They did not take the BJP's campaign promises seriously
and hence did not expect an Indian nuclear test so soon.

Name

The word Shakti (Hindr.Wfi^J means Strength in Sanskrit. The Operation Shakti was the codename of a
thermonuclear device that was exploded in Pokhran Test Range in May 11.

Development and test teams

The main technical personnel involved in the operation were:

Project Chief Coordinators

• Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (later, President of India), Scientific Adviser to the Prime Minister and Head of the
DRDO.

• Dr. R. Chidambaram, Chairman of the Atomic Energy Commission and the Department of Atomic energy.

Bhabha Atomic Research Centre (BARC)

• Dr. Anil Kakodkar, Director of BARC.

• Dr. Satinder Kumar Sikka, Director; Thermonuclear Weapon Development.

• Dr. M.S. Ramkumar, Director of Nuclear Fuel and Automation Manufacturing Group; Director, Nuclear
Component Manufacture.

• Dr. D.D. Sood, Director of Radiochemistry and Isotope Group; Director, Nuclear Materials Acquisition.

• Dr. S.K. Gupta, Solid State Physics and Spectroscopy Group; Director, Device Design & Assessment.

• Dr. G Govindraj, Associate Director of Electronic and Instrumentation Group; Director, Field Instrumentation.

Pokhran-II 227

Defence Research & Development Organization (DRDO)

• Dr. K. Santhanam; Director, Test Site Preparations.

• Dr. M.Vasudev; Range Safety Officer.

Devices

A total of five nuclear weapons were detonated during Operation Shakti. They were:

Shakti I

A two stage thermonuclear device with a boosted fission primary, its yield was downgraded from 200 kt (theoretical)
to 40 kt for test purposes.

Shakti II

A pure fission device using the Plutonium implosion design with a yield of 15 kt. The device tested was an actual
nuclear warhead that can be delivered by bombers or fighters and also mounted on a missile. The warhead was an
improved, lightweight and miniaturized version of the device tested in 1974. Scientists at BARC had been working
to improve the 1974 design for many years. Data from the 1974 test was used to carry out computer simulations
using the indigenous PARAM supercomputer to improve the design. The 1998 test was intended to prove the
validity of the improved designs.

Shakti III

An experimental boosted fission device that used reactor grade Plutonium for its primary with a yield of 0.3 kt. This
test device was used to test only the primary stage. It did not contain any tritium required to boost the fission. This
test was designed to study the possibility of using reactor grade plutonium in warheads and also to prove India's
expertise in controlling and damping a nuclear explosion in order to achieve a low (sub-kiloton) yield.

Shakti IV

A 0.5 kt experimental device. The test's only purpose was to collect data about the explosion process and to study the
performance of various bomb components.

Shakti V

A 0.2 kt experimental device that used U-233, an isotope of uranium that is not found in nature but is produced in
India's fast breeder reactors that consume Thorium. This device too was used to collect data.

Production and preparation of devices

Three laboratories of the DRDO were involved in designing, testing and producing components like advanced
detonators, the implosion systems, high-voltage trigger systems. They were also responsible for weaponization,
systems engineering, aerodynamics, safety interlocks and flight trials. The nuclear devices were moved from their
vaults at the BARC complex in the early hours of 1 May, around 3 a.m., by four Indian Army trucks under the
command of Col. Umang Kapur. They were transported to Mumbai airport and flown at dawn in an Indian Air Force
AN-32 transport plane to the Jaisalmer military base. An Army convoy of four trucks transported the explosive
devices to Pokhran. Three trips were required to complete the delivery of the devices and associated equipment. The
devices were delivered directly to the device preparation building in the range which was designated as the 'Prayer
Hall'.

The tests were organized into two groups that were fired separately, with all devices in a group fired at the same
time. The first group consisted of the thermonuclear device (Shakti I), the fission device (Shakti II), and a

Pokhran-II 228

sub-kiloton device (Shakti III). The remaining two sub-kiloton devices made up the second group (Shakti IV & V). It
was decided that the first group consisting of three devices would be tested on 1 1 of May and the second group on 13
May. The thermonuclear device was placed in a shaft code named 'White House' (over 200 m deep), while the 'Taj
Mahal' shaft (over 150 m deep) was assigned to the fission bomb, and 'Kumbhkaran' to the first sub-kiloton shot. The
other two shafts for the second test series were designated NT 1 & NT 2. The first three devices were placed in their
respective shafts on 10 May, the day before the tests. The shafts were L-shaped, with a horizontal chamber for the
test device. The first device to be placed was the sub-kiloton device in the 'Kumbhkaran' shaft. The Army engineers
sealed the shaft at around 8:30 PM. Then the thermonuclear device was lowered into the 'White House' shaft and
sealing this shaft took until 4 a.m. the next morning. By then the fission device was being placed in the 'Taj Mahal'
shaft. It was sealed at 7:30 a.m., just 90 minutes from the planned test time.

The actual timing of the tests depended on the local weather conditions. It was hot in the Pokhran desert in early
May, it reached 43°C on the day of the test. But the critical factor was the wind. Although the tests were
underground, they were shallow tests and the sealing of the shaft could not be guaranteed to be leak-proof (a number
of shaft seal failures had occurred during tests by USA, USSR and UK despite the shafts being much deeper). Winds
blowing toward inhabited areas, as occurred on the morning on 11 May were not acceptable. But by early afternoon
the winds had died down and the scientists decided to go ahead with the tests. Dr. K. Santhanam of the DRDO, who
was in charge of the test site preparations, gave the two keys that activated the test countdown to Dr. M. Vasudev,
the range safety officer, who was responsible for verifying that all test indicators were normal. After checking the
indicators, Vasudev handed one key each to a representative of BARC and the DRDO, who together unlocked the
countdown system. At 3:45 p.m. the three devices were detonated.

Detonations

The three devices (Shakti I, II & III) were detonated simultaneously at 3:43:44.2 p.m. 1ST; 10:13:44.2 UTC +/-0.32
sec; as measured by international seismic monitors. Seismic data collected by stations outside India have placed the
total magnitude of the first event at 5.3 (+/- 0.4), making it one of the largest seismic events in the world during the
24 hr period during which it occurred. The measured seismic center of the triple event was located at 27.0716 deg N
latitude, and 71.7612 deg E longitude, which places it only 2.8 km from the 1974 test site (which was at 27.095 deg
N, 71.752 deg E). The combined force of the three blasts lifted an area about the size of a cricket ground to a few
metres above the earth kicking up dust and sand into the air. Three craters were sunk on the desert surface.

Just two days later on 13 May, at 12.21 p.m.IST 6:51 UTC, the two sub-kiloton devices were detonated
underground. This event was not detected by any seismic stations as they were of very low yield.

With the five explosions, India declared the series of tests to be over.

Reactions to the tests
Reactions in India

Shortly after the tests, a press meet was convened at the Prime Minister's residence in New Delhi. Prime Minister
Vajpayee appeared before the press corps and made the following short statement:

Today, at 1545 hours, India conducted three underground nuclear tests in the Pokhran range. The tests conducted today were with a fission
device, a low yield device and a thermonuclear device. The measured yields are in line with expected values. Measurements have also
confirmed that there was no release of radioactivity into the atmosphere. These were contained explosions like the experiment conducted in
May 1974. 1 warmly congratulate the scientists and engineers who have carried out these successful tests.

News of the tests were greeted with jubilation and large-scale approval by the society in India. The Bombay Stock
Exchange registered significant gains. Newspapers and television channels praised the government for its bold
decision; editorials were full of praise for the country's leadership and advocated the development of an operational

Pokhran-II 229

nuclear arsenal for the country's armed forces. The scientific establishment was thankful to the government for
having been given the opportunity to prove their capabilities. More significantly, all doubts were erased from the
minds of people who questioned India's nuclear capability after the testing in 1974.

U.N. Sanctions

The reactions from abroad started immediately after the tests were advertised. The United Nations issued a statement
expressing its disappointment. On June 6, the United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1 172 condemning
the test and that of Pakistan's. The United States issued a strong statement condemning India and promised that
sanctions would follow. The American establishment was embarrassed as there had been a serious intelligence
failure in detecting the preparations for the test. Canada, which had earlier supplied the CIRUS nuclear reactor to
India which was the source of plutonium for the 1974 tests, reassured the world that the CIRUS reactor was not in
any way connected to the 1998 tests. China issued a vociferous condemnation calling upon the international
community to exert pressure on India to sign the NPT and eliminate its nuclear arsenal. With India joining the group
of countries possessing nuclear weapons, a new strategic dimension had emerged in Asia, particularly South Asia.

U.S. and Japanese reaction

In keeping with its preferred approach to foreign policy in recent decades, and in compliance with a 1994
anti-proliferation law, the United States imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions on India consisted of
cutting off all assistance to India except humanitarian aid, banning the export of certain defense material and
technologies, ending American credit and credit guarantees to India, and requiring the U.S. to oppose lending by
international financial institutions to India.

Japan also imposed economic sanctions on India. The sanctions consisted of freezing all new loans and grants except

ro]

for humanitarian aid to India.

Some other nations also imposed sanctions on India, primarily in the form of suspension of foreign aid and
government-to-government credit lines. However, the overall effect on India's economy and technological
progress was marginal. Most nations did not sanction India, and India's exports and imports together constituted only
4% of its GDP, with U.S. trade accounting for only 10% of this total. Far more significant were the restrictions on
lending imposed by the United States and its representatives on international finance bodies. Most of the sanctions
were lifted within five years.

Support for India

However, other nuclear powers, such as Israel, France and Russia, refrained from condemning India.

Israel issued a statement 'praising' India's tests and declaring that India's reasons for carrying out nuclear tests were
the same as Israel's. .

China

The tests "seriously" concerned China but ultimately refrained to gave criticism to India on May 12. The next
day, the Chinese Foreign Ministry issued the statement clearly stating that "it shocked and strongly condemned" the

Indian nuclear tests and called for the international community to "adopt a unified stand and strongly demand that

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India immediate stop development of nuclear weapons". China further rejected India's stated rationale "totally

unreasonable", that it needs nuclear capabilities to counter a Chinese threat. In a meeting with Masayoshi

Takemura of Democratic Party of Japan, Foreign Minister of the People's Republic of China Qian Qichen quoted in

television: "India's nuclear tests were a "serious matter," particularly because they were conducted in light of the fact

that more than 140 countries have signed the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty. It is even more unacceptable that

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India claims to have conducted the tests to counter what it called a "China threat". On 24 November 1998, the

Chinese Embassy, New Delhi issued a formal statement:

Pokhran-II 230

(sic).... But regrettably, India conducted nuclear tests last May, which has run against the contemporary
historical trend and seriously affected peace and stability in South Asia. Pakistan also conducted nuclear tests
later on. India's nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and
provocation of nuclear tests have not only led to the escalation of tensions between India and Pakistan and
provocation of nuclear arms races in South Asia, but also dealt a heavy blow to international nuclear
disarmament and the global nonproliferation regime. It is only natural that India's nuclear tests have met with
extensive condemnation and aroused serious concern from the international communit

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— Chinese Embassy, New Delhi, source

Pakistan

The most vehement reaction to India's nuclear test was Pakistan's. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a
severe statement blaming India for instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Pakistan Prime Minister Navaz
Sharif vowed that his country would give a suitable reply to the Indians. The day after the first tests, Pakistan
Minister of Foreign Affairs Captain (retired) Gohar Ayub Khan indicated that Pakistan was ready to conduct a
nuclear test of its own. As he said: "[Pakistan] is prepared to match India, we have the capability ... We in Pakistan
will maintain a balance with India in all fields", he said in an interview. "We are in a headlong arms race on the
subcontinent."

Prime Minister Navaz Sharif was much more subdued, refusing to say whether a test would be conducted in
response: "We are watching the situation and we will take appropriate action with regard to our security" , he said.
Sharif sought to mobilize the entire Islamic world in support of Pakistan and criticized India for nuclear
proliferation.

Given authorization by Prime minister Navaz Sharif, the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) carried out
nuclear testing under the codename Chagai-I on May 28, 1998 and Chagai-II on May 30, 1998. These six
underground nuclear tests at the Chagai and Kharan test site were conducted just fifteen days after India's last test.
The total yield of the tests were reported to be 40 kt (see codename: Chagai-I).

Pakistan's subsequent tests invited similar condemnations from multiple nations ranging from Argentina to Russia,

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the United Kingdom and the United States. American president Bill Clinton was quoted as saying "Two wrongs

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don't make a right", criticizing Pakistan's tests as reactionary to India's Pokhran-II. The United States, Japan, and
a number of other states reacted by imposing economic sanctions on Pakistan.

Pakistan's leading nuclear physicist and one of the top scientists, Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy, held India responsible for
Pakistan's nuclear test experiments in Chagai.

Test yields

The yields from the three tests on 11 May 1998 were put at 58 kilotons by the Bhabha Atomic Research Centre
based on seismic data obtained at the test site 3 kilometres from the test shafts. The tests were defined as a complete
success, and it was determined that all the devices and their components had performed flawlessly. To remove all
doubts, the senior scientists involved in the Pokhran operations addressed the press on the 17th of May. In this press
meet the scientists claimed that the fission device produced a yield of 15 kt and .3 kt was obtained from the low yield
device. They also claimed that the thermonuclear device gave a total yield of 45 kt, 15 kt from the fission trigger and
30 kt from the fusion process and that the theoretical yield of the device (200 kt) was reduced to 45 kt in order to
minimize seismic damage to villages near the test range. The village closest to the test range, Khetolai, was a mere 5
kilometres away. Neutral assesement by western scholars show that Shakti-I was 32 Kt as claimed to 43Kt, however
results of Shakti-2 was 13Kt according to western scholars as claimed by BARC.

Recent allegations

In 2009 it was widely reported that a retired atomic scientist, K. Santhanam who was closely associated with the

Pokhran-II 23 1

n 7in 8i
tests, claims that the 1998 tests were not as successful as the then BJP government had claimed they were.

These claims were widely dismissed in India, including a specific dismissal by A. P. J. Abdul Kalam, who cited

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evidence and data to prove his point.

Legacy

May 1 1 has been officially declared as National Technology Day in India to commemorate the first of the five tests
that were carried out on May 11, 1998. The day was officially signed by the then Prime Minister of India. The day is
celebrated by giving awards to various individuals and industries in the field of science and industry.

Images

References

[I] http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html

[2] Sublette, Carey. "The Long Pause: 1974—1989" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaPause.html). nuclearweapon archive, http://

nuclearweaponarchive.org. . Retrieved 14 November 2011.
[3] weapon archive. "The Momentum builds" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaMomentum.html). Nuclear weapon Archive. .

Retrieved 14 November 2011.
[4] (PTI), Press Trust of India. "Pokhran II row: Sethna slams Kalam, Iyengar says tests were done in haste" (http://www.dnaindia.com/india/

report_pokhran-ii-row-sethna-slams-kalam-iyengar-says-tests-were-done-in-haste_1286978). DNA News, dna news.. . Retrieved 15 November

2011.
[5] http://www.rediff.com/news/1998/may/16bombl2.htm Rediff News 'Operation Shakti' on Budh Purnima

[6] Prime Minister's announcement of India's three underground nuclear tests (http://www.fas.org/news/india/1998/05/vajpayeel 198.htm)
[7] "U.S. imposes sanctions on India" (http://www.cnn.com/WORLD/asiapcf/9805/13/india.us/). CAW. .
[8] "U.S. lifts final sanctions on Pakistan" (http://articles.cnn.com/2001-10-26/world/japan.

sanctions_l_pakistan-sanctions-pakistan-and-india-nuclear-testing?_s=PM:asiapcf). CAW. 29 October 2001. .
[9] http://www.jstor.org/pss/44069222
[10] Air vice-chief in Israel to clinch deal. Statesman (India) April 03, 2001

[II] ""China is 'Seriously Concerned' But Restrained in Its Criticism,"". New York Times, 13 May 1998. 13 May 1998.

[12] Resources on India and Pakistan (Copyright 1999, All Rights Reserved). "China's Reaction to India's Nuclear Tests" (http://cns.miis.edu/

archive/country _india/china/nsacris. htm). CNS Center for Nonproliferation Studies Monterey Institute of International Studies. . Retrieved

15 May 2012.
[13] Active Correspondants (24 November 1998). "India-China Claim 'active approach". The Hindu, 24/xi-1998.
[14] (http://cns.miis.edu/research/india/wreactpk.htm)
[15] Hoodbhoy, PhD (Nuclear Physics), Pervez Amerali (Januar 23rd, 201 1). "Pakistan's nuclear bayonet" (http://www.dawn.com/201 1/02/

16/herald-exclusive-pakistans-nuclear-bayonet.html). Dr. Pervez Hoodbhoy, Doctor of Philosophy (Nuclear Physics), Professor of Nuclear

and High-Energy Physics at the Quaid-e-Azam University and Senior academic research scientist at the National Center for Nuclear Physics.

Dr. Prof. Pervez Amerali Hoodbhoy and the The Herald. . Retrieved September 9, 201 1.
[16] http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaRealYields.html
[17] "Pokhran-II thermonuclear test, a failure" (http://www.thehindu.com/opinion/op-ed/article2131 l.ece). Chennai, India: thehindu.com.

2009-09-17. . Retrieved 2010-10-27.
[18] Majumder, Sanjoy (2009-08-27). "India nuclear test 'did not work'" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/8225540.stm). bbc.co.uk. . Retrieved

2010-05-04.
[19] Pokhran II successful, insists Kalam (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/news/india/Pokhran-II-successful-insists-Kalam-/articleshow/

4941553.cms)
[20] Press Inormation Bureau (May 11, 2008). "National technology day celebrated" (http://www.dst.gov.in/whats_new/press-release08/

tech-day. htm). Department of Science and Technology. . Retrieved January 9, 201 1.

Pokhran-II 232

External links

• Nuclear Weapons Archive: Operation Shakti (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/India/IndiaShakti.html)

• India aborted nuclear bomb plans in 1994' (http://news.in.msn.com/national/article.
aspx?cp-documentid= 1 32052 1 )

• India's Pathway to Pokhran II: The Prospects and Sources of New Delhi's Nuclear Weapons Program (http://
w w w j stor. org/stable/25 39297 ?seq= 1 )

Books

• How the CIA was Fooled written by Raj Chengappa (http://www.india-today.com/itoday/17051999/books.
html)

Chagai-I

Chagai-I

The mountain

is seen raised above as the chain reaction builds up by the devices.

Information

Country

Pakistan

Test site

Chagai Weapon-testing laboratories, Baluchistan Province

Period

May 1998

Number of tests

5

Test type

Underground tests

Device type

Fission/Fusion

Max. yield

Total yield -40 kilotons of TNT (unknown operator:

u'strong' TJ)

[1]
See note

Navigation

Previous test

Kirana-I

Next test

Chagai-11

Chagai-I was the codename referring to the five underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan at 15:15hrs (3:15
pm PST) on 28 May 1998. The tests were performed in a secret Chagai weapon-testing laboratories, located in the
Chagai District of the Baluchistan Province of Pakistan.

The Chagai-I — the first public nuclear tests operation of Pakistan — is considered a milestone in the history of
Pakistan that was conducted in a direct response to India's second nuclear tests, Operation Shakti, on 11 and 13 May
of 1998. Nuclear weapon testings of both states resulted in a variety of economic sanctions on each other by number
of major powers, particularly the United States and Japan. With the performance of the simultaneous atomic testing
of the five nuclear devices, Pakistan, thus became the seventh nuclear power in the world to successfully develop
and publicly test nuclear weapons, despite the international fury.

Chagai-I 233

Birth of Pakistan's atomic weapons programme

The country's uneasy relationship with India, Afghanistan and the former Soviet Union explains its policy to to
become a nuclear power as part of its defence strategy. Since their independence from United Kingdom on August
1947, India and Pakistan had fought two declared wars over the disputed Kashmir territory; first war being fought in
1947-48 and second being fought in 1965.

Economic embargo placed by the United States, alliance with the West endangering the national security of the
country, and the offset the country s conventional inferiority against India and to counter the advancing Indian
nuclear programme after 1965, the country put efforts to launch a classified and clandestine atomic bomb project.
Shortly after the war, the country acquired its first research reactor, PARR-I, from the United States and a
international research institute, Pinstesh, located in Nilore city in the Islamabad Capital Venue. In 1969, after
successfully negotiating with the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority (UKAEA) to supply Pakistan with a
nuclear fuel reprocessing site capable of extracting 360g of weapons-grade plutonium annually. The PAEC chose
five top scientists to receive training to gain expertise in nuclear fuel cycle as well as weapon-grade and

reactor-gradeplutonium. Agreements were made with Canada, France and the British consortium companies to

T21
expand the nuclear power infrastructure as part of the peaceful nuclear policy.

The 1971 war and atomic bomb projects

The main turning point in Pakistan's decision-making was the 1971 war with India which led the loss of provisional
state, East-Pakistan, which was succeeded as Bangladesh. Lasting only less than two weeks, around 93,000
personnel of Pakistan Armed Forces were taken as POWs by India as well as the 5,000 sq mi (13,000 km2) country's
territory which held by India after the war. Although the territory and the POWs were returned to Pakistan, it left
deep scars in Pakistan's civil society as well as leaving the political and military misery. The armed liberation

war and the 1971 war was an unforgettable experience and lesson to political and military establishment. For
Pakistan, it was a decisive defeat, a psychological setback that came from a defeat at the hands of intense rival
India. Pakistan lost half its territory, a significant portion of its economy and its influential geo-political role in South
Asia. At foreign fronts, Pakistan failed to gather any moral and foreign support even from her long-standing allies,

particularly the United States, Turkey and the People's Republic of China. Since the Partition, the physical

T71
existence Pakistan seemed to be in great mortal danger and quite obviously could rely on no one but itself.

The war played a crucial and groundbreaking role in the hearts of top scientists of the country who witnessed the war

ro]

and control of remaining parts of the country was given to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as country's elected Prime minister.
Roughly two weeks after the disaster, Zulfikar Ali Bhutto called for a secret meeting of top and senior scientists in
Multan on 20 January 1972 which later elevated as "Multan meeting" . There, Zulfikar Bhutto authorised, initiated,
and orchestrated the scientific research on atomic weapons bringing all the nuclear infrastructure under one chain of
command. Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, who was "obsessed" with Indian nuclear efforts, made extremely critical

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decisions and aggressively supervised the policy implementation of the atomic bomb project. In 1972, Bhutto
appointed Abdus Salam as his science adviser and at same time, called nuclear engineer Munir Ahmad Khan from
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) to lead the program administratively while Bhutto controlled the
program as the political administrative figure. On November 1972, Bhutto assisted by Salam and Munir Khan,

inaugurated the first commercial nuclear power, Kanupp-I in Karachi, Sindh Province. Along with Prof. Salam

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and Munir Ahmad Khan, the diameter of scientific research was expanded throughout the country. In PAEC,

Salam established research divisions and groups that took charge to carry out the physics and mathematical

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calculations regarding to the development of the weapon. The atomic bomb project at an early stage was directed

by Abdus Salam as he was the founding director of Theoretical Physics Group (denoted as TPG) and the and

Mathematical Physics Group (denoted as MPG) at the PAEC to conduct mathematical and physics calculations

regarding the fission devices.

Chagai-I

234

On March 1974, the research on physical developments were initiated by Munir Khan and Abdus Salam after

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chairing a meeting in Pinstech Institute. At this meeting the word "bomb" was never used but the participants
fully understood the nature of the work. This laid the foundation of "Wah Group Scientist" (denoted as WGS) with
U.S. educated mechanical engineer Hafeez Qureshi as its director-general. During the same time, a new
Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) was set up to coordinate work on the various specialised groups
working in PAEC on the design, development, and testing of nuclear weapons under chemical engineer dr. Shaikh

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Zaman. The far more complex assembly methods of implosion-bomb design was favoured over the relatively
simple gun-type method, and the productions of reactor and weapon-grade and separation of weapon-grade
plutonium isotopes were massive undertakings by the PAEC.

The atomic bomb project was accelerated on May 1974 after India

surprising Pakistan and the rest of the world after announcing the

first explosion of nuclear device, Smiling Buddha in Pokhran Test

Range of Indian Army. The goal to developed the atomic

bombs became impetus after launching the uranium enrichment

project, the Kahuta Project. In 1974, Abdul Qadeer Khan who

was then working as a senior scientist at the URENCO Group

directed a letter through the Embassy in Amsterdam, and officially

joined the atomic bomb project in 1976. The Corps of

Engineers under directorship of the General Zahid Ali Akbar, built

the Engineering Research Laboratories (ERL) for that purpose and

situated a Abdul Qadeer Khan and his team at ERL for

commercial and weapon-grade uranium enrichment. Finally in

1978, weapon designing and calculations were completed and a

milestone in isotope separation was reached by the PAEC. In

1981, the physical development of the atomic bomb project was

completed and the ERL successfully enriched the uranium above

5% and produces first batch of HEU fuel rods. On On 1 1 March 1983, a milestone was achieved when PAEC led

by Munir Ahmad Khan carried out the first cold test of a working nuclear device, codename Kirana-1. This was

followed by 24 more cold tests by PAEC in which different weapon designs were tested and improved. After

decades of covertly building and developing the atomic weapons program and the related atomic, Pakistan under the

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leadership of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif, tested its five underground nuclear devices in Chagai Hills.

All five atomic devices were the Implosion-type
similar to one in the illustration. The government never
released the details of the technical aspects of the tested

weapons as a public domain due to its sensitivity.

Tests planning and preparation

Plans to conduct an atomic test started in 1976 when Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) research
scientists frequently visiting the area to find a suitable location for an underground nuclear test, preferably a granite
mountain. After a long survey, the PAEC scientists chose the granite mountain Koh Kambaran in the Ras Koh Hills
range in the Chagai Division of Baluchistan in 1978. Its highest point rises to a height of 3,009 metres (sources
vary). The then-martial law administrator of the province, General Rahimuddin Khan, spearheaded the construction
of the potential test sites throughout the 1980s.

In March 2005, the former Pakistan Prime minister Benazir Bhutto said Pakistan may have had an atomic weapon
long before, and her father had told her from his prison cell that preparations for a nuclear test had been made in
1977, and he expected to have an atomic test of a nuclear device in August 1977. However, the plan was moved on
to December 1977 and later it was delayed indefinitely. In an interview with Geo TV, Samar Mubarakmand of the
Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, has said that the team of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission developed the
design of atomic bomb in 1978 and had successfully conducted a cold test after developing the first atomic bomb in

1983

[\i

Chagai-I 235

The exact origin of the name is unknown, but it is often attributed to the weapon-testing laboratory leader dr. Ishfaq
Ahmad as a reference to the Chagai Hills, in spite of no nuclear experiments were performed at the vicinity of this
site. It is generally believed that the codename was given in the honour of the Chagai Hills in an attempt that it
would not attract international and national attention of the world at where the exact tests were actually performed.
On April 2010, Nawaz Sharif, at a public function to celebrate nuclear blasts, said the then-U.S President Bill
Clinton offered a package of US$5 billion for not carrying out nuclear blasts and warned about imposition of ban

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otherwise. Nawaz said that he was in Kazakhstan in a visit to meet the President, Nursultan Nazarbayev, when
India tested its nuclear device. The entire nation was united in favour of nuclear blasts and Mushahid Hussain was

[21] [221

the first person who advice that nuclear blasts should be carried out in reply of Indian nuclear explosions. In

1999, in an interview given to Pakistani and Indian journalists in Islamabad, Sharif had said: If India had not
exploded the bomb, Pakistan would not have done so. Once New Delhi did so, We [Sharif Government] had no
choice because of public pressure.

Test predictions and yields

The PAEC carried out five underground nuclear tests at the Chagai test site at 3: 16 p.m. (PST) on the afternoon of 28

[14] [24]

May 1998. The observation post was established about 10km (about -6.21 miles) from the test vicinity, with

members of Mathematics groups and Theoretical Physics Group remained charged with calculating the yields.

Calculating an accurate and precise yields are very hard to calculate even in a control environmental system, with

many different possible ways the yields can be determined. The questions of politics also further disputed the exact

figures. The total maximum yield of the tests was reported to be -40 kilotons of TNT equivalent, with the largest

[25]
(boosted) device yielding 30—36 kilotons. However, Western seismologists remains unconvinced and estimated

the yield of the largest device to be no greater than 12 kilotons, leading U.S. nuclear weapons expert David Albright

also remains skeptical about Pakistan's claims. U.S. scholars, based on the data they received from their

computers, claimed that the possible yield ranged from 12-20kt as opposed to ~40kt by the Pakistan Government.

The PAEC's mathematics division made the scientific data to public domain and published seismic activities,

T2R1

mathematical graphs, and mathematical formulas used to calculate the yield. The equations obtained by Western
observer, Terry Wallace (who applied on both India and Pakistan tests) follows:

Mb = 4.10 + 0.7Uog 10 Y

The scientific publications were continued to be appear as public domain, the explosion measured 5.54 degrees on

T2R1

the Richter Scale, supporting the Pakistan government's claim. After the tests, Prime minister Nawaz Sharif
addressed the nation via Pakistan's government channel PTV and congratulated the entire nation and days of

[29] [301

celebration followed throughout Pakistan.

From scientific data received by PAEC, it appears that Pakistan did not test a thermonuclear device, as opposed to

[O]

India. According to Ishfaq Ahmad, PAEC had no plan to developed a three-stage thermonuclear device because of
economic reasons, even though back in 1974, Riazuddin did propose such a plan to Abdus Salam, Director of

[O]

Theoretical Physics Group that time. From the outset, PAEC concentrated on developing smaller but tactical

[31]
nuclear weapons easily installed in PAF's aircraft, naval combatant vessels, and missiles.

Shortly after the tests, former chairman and technical director Munir Ahmad Khan famously quoted: "These boosted
devices are like a half way stage towards a thermonuclear bomb. They use elements of the thermonuclear process,

and are effectively stronger atom bombs Pakistan has had a nuclear capability since 1984 and all the first five

T321
devices were made with the HEU. On other hand, Abdul Qadeer Khan further provided technical details on

235

fission devices while addressing the local media as he puts it: "All boosted fission devices using U on 28 May.

None of these explosions were thermonuclear.. Pakistan is currently doing research and can do a fusion test if only

T321
asked. But it depends on the economical circumstances, political situation and the decision of the government...".

As opposed to India's thermonuclear approach, Dr. N.M. Butt, senior scientist, stated that "PAEC built a sufficient

number of neutron bombs — a battlefield weapon that is essentially a low yield device".

Chagai-I 236

Development and test teams

Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC)

Ishfaq Ahmad, Chairman of the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC).

Samar Mubarakmand, Member (Technical), Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission.

Anwar Ali, Directorate of Technical Equipment (DTE).

Hafeez Qureshi, Head of Directorate of Technical Development (DTD)

NA. Javed, Director of Directorate of Quality Assurance (DQA).

Man Burney, Director of Directorate of Technical Procurement (DTP).

LA. Bhatty, Director of Directorate of Industrial Liaison (DIL)

Tariq Salija, Director of the Radiation and Isotope Applications Division (RIAD).

Muhammad Jameel, Director of Directorate of Science and Engineering Services (DSES)

Muhammad Arshad, the Chief Scientific Officer (CSO).

Kahuta Research Laboratories (KRL)

Abdul Qadeer Khan, Director General of Khan Research Laboratories (KRL).
M. Nasim Khan, Director of Material Science and Engineering Division (MSE).
S. Mansoor Ahmed, Director of Uranium Enrichment Technology Division (UET).
Fakhr Hashmi, Director of Molecular-Laser Enrichment Technology Division (MLET).
Javed Ashraf Mirza, Director of Control and Guidance Division (CGD).
Tasneem M. Shah, Director of Computational Fluid Dynamics Division (CFD).

Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers (PACE)

• LGen Zulfikar Ali Khan — Engineer-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical
Engineering and the System and Combat Engineering Division of the Pakistan Army Corps of Engineers

Reaction in Pakistan

The Directorate of Technical Development of PAEC which carried out the Chagai tests issued the following

[331
statement soon after the tests:

The mission has, on the one hand, boosted the morale of the Pakistani nation by giving it an honorable position in the nuclear world, while on
the other hand it validated scientific theory, design and previous results from cold tests. This has more than justified the creation and
establishment of DTD more than 20 years back.

Through these critical years of nuclear device development, the leadership contribution changed hands from Munir Ahmad Khan to Ishfaq
Ahmad and finally to Mubarakmand.

These gifted scientists and engineers along with a highly dedicated team worked logically and economically to design, produce and test an

[34J
extremely rugged device for the nation which enable the Islamic Republic of Pakistan from strength to strength.

Effects on Science in Pakistan

On this day, Pakistani scientists earned national renown in Pakistan, with Media of Pakistan projecting their

1351
biographies all over the country. Senior scientists and engineers were invited by a number of academic institutes

F351
and universities to deliver lectures on mathematical, theoretical, nuclear and particle physics. The institutes

bestowed hundreds of silver and gold medallions and honorary doctorates to the scientists and engineers in 1998.

Professor Abdus Salam (1926—1996) was also celebrated in Pakistan and Government of Pakistan released a

commemorative stamp in the honour of Salam. In 1998, the theory of electroweak and its discovery two decade

ago by Salam, was also celebrated nationwide for which Abdus Salam was awarded the Physics's Nobel Prize in

Chagai-I 237

T351
1979. In 1999, Government established Abdus Salam's museum in National Center for Physics, where his

T351
contribution to scientific programs and efforts were publicly recorded and televised. The 28 May has been

officially declared as Youm-e-Takbeer (Day of Greatness) to commemorate and remembrance of the first five tests

that were carried out in 28 May, and as well as National Science Day in Pakistan to honour and remembrance the

scientific efforts led by scientists to developed the devices. The day was officially signed by the then-Prime

Minister of Pakistan Nawaz Sharif. The day is celebrated by giving awards (such as Chagai-Medal) to various

T371
individuals and industries in the field of science and industries. The Nawaz Sharif Government also established

rooi

the Chagai-I Medal and it was first awarded to the scientists of Pakistan in 1998 who were witnessed the tests.

no]

The graphite mountains are visibly shown in the gold medallion and equal ribbon stripes of yellow, red and white.

Global Reactions

[39]
Pakistan's tests were generally condemned by the Non-OIC international community. The United Nations

Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the both Indian test and that of Pakistan's. Brazil declared

[39]
that it "deplores" Pakistan's decision to carry out the tests. In an official statement on 28 May 1998, the French

Foreign Ministry denounced India's five nuclear tests. French President Jacques Chirac implored Pakistan to

[39]
abstain from further testing. Iran, Pakistan's strategic ally and neighbor also criticized the tests, with a formal

statement by. Robin Cook, Britain's foreign secretary, expressed dismay at the tests. Kofi Annan, the secretary

general of the United Nations, deplored the tests saying that "they exacerbate tension in an already difficult

relationship".

The United Nations Security Council condemned Pakistan's five nuclear tests. "The council strongly deplores the

underground nuclear tests conducted by Pakistan despite international calls for restraint," said a statement from

Kenya's Njugumu Moses Mahugu, president of the 15-member council. While France, Israel, and Russian

[39]
globally supported Indian's stand on testing nuclear devices. Pakistan founded difficult to gather support even

from its long term allies. Pakistan's strategic allies Turkey, Germany, and People's Republic of China did not

supported Pakistan while neither issued any statement.

The tests brought Pakistan in an extensive Foreign policy deadlock, with no foreign support was found. Pakistan,
since 1971 disaster, failed to gather any support and a Foreign policy turmoil continued until Navaz Sharif was
deposed in 1999.

At a news conference 28 May 1998, United States President Bill Clinton condemned Pakistan's nuclear tests saying,
"I deplore the decision." He also promised to reprimand Islamabad with the same sanctions the United States has
imposed on India." Clinton also signed off on economic sanctions against Pakistan that prohibited billions of dollars

[39]

in loans from multilateral institutions. NATO said that the tests were a "dangerous development" and also warned
of sanctions.

Economic effects

The United Nations Security Council adopted Resolution 1172 condemning the Indian test and that of Pakistan's.
United States, Japan, Australia, Sweden, Canada, and International Monetary Fund, imposed economical sanctions
on Pakistan. The Japanese government had called its Ambassador from Pakistan, and suspend its foreign relations
with Pakistan. During the time of nuclear testing, it was reported that Pakistan had only US$ 1 Billion in its
national treasure, and India had reported by be $29Billion in its State Bank. By comparing to Pakistan's economy,
the sanctions imposed by Resolution 1172, was exerted only with marginal effects on India's economy and
technological progress. The IMF had suspend $3Billion aid to Pakistan, and the country's economy was near facing
the serious economic default. Sartaj Aziz, an economist and Foreign Minister, and his economics team then briefed
Nawaz Sharif that if the economy reaches to the financial default, the terms for the CTBT and NPT would be
exercised more tougher on Pakistan, if Pakistan seeks a Bailout plan from the World Bank, the IMF, and the Asian
Development Bank, or even the United States.

Chagai-I 238

The economy was already deteriorated, Aziz's team was quickly taking the steps to control the economy. Prime
minister Sharif ordered his Finance minister, Sartaj Aziz, to freeze the low foreign exchange reserves. Aziz then
asserted that such act would lead to an extreme financial default. Insead, Aziz offered the investors to sell their
shares at rate of 46PKR, which was 2PKR was more that time, to the Government in order to avoid the financial
default. This resulted in improving the control of the economy and Nawaz Sharif government then gained the
control of the economy. Sharif then suspended his capitalist policies and made a move to introduced the socialist
economics policies, previously introduced by former Prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in 1970s. Sartaz Aziz was
replaced by Sharif as he opposed Sharif s plans to divert an economic recession by taking such steps. Aziz was
made Foreign minister and was succedeed by Dr. Ishaq Dar, a career professor of economist who took this daunting
charge.

In all, the United States had suspend the economical aid to the Pakistan, but continued the limited economical aid to

Pakistan on humanitarian basis. Increasingly, the composition of assistance to Pakistan shifted away from grants

T421
toward loans repayable in foreign exchange. All new U.S. additional economic assistance to Pakistan was

1421
suspended in May 1998. The sanctions were lifted by President George W. Bush after Pakistan President General

1421
Musharraf allied Pakistan with the U.S. in its war on terror. Having improved its finances, the government

T421
refused further IMF assistance, and consequently the IMF program was ended.

Historical Overview

Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Prime minister and colloquially known as the father of nuclear weapons programme.

Navaz Sharif, Pakistan's Prime Minister at that time,

Abdus Salam, embarked the nuclear weapons program and director of Theoretical Physics Division

Riazuddin, designer of Pakistan's thermo-nuclear devices.

Asghar Qadir, led mathematical calculations involved in the nuclear devices.

Munir Ahmad Khan, technical director and developed Pakistan's nuclear fuel cycle, nuclear weapons and energy

programs.

Ishfaq Ahmad, nuclear weapon designer and the Chairman of PAEC at that time.

Abdul Qadeer Khan, developed the Centrifuge technology used in enriching uranium hexafluoride gas for

Pakistan.

Samar Mubarakmand, Director of Fast-Neutron Physics Group and supervised the atomic tests at Chagai

Operation Shakti — India's nuclear test on 1 1 May 1998

Chagai-II- Pakistan's second nuclear test on 30 May 1998

Pakistan and Nuclear Weapons

List of countries with nuclear weapons

External links

T431
• Video of Pakistan's first Nuclear Test

References

[1] Approximating and calculating the exact, accurate and precise yields are difficult to calculate. Even under very controlled conditions, precise
yields can be very hard to determine, and for less controlled conditions the margins of error can be quite large. There are number of different
ways that the yields can be determined, including calculations based on blast size, blast brightness, seismographic data, and the strength of the
shock wave. The Pakistan Government authorities puts up the yield range from 35 — 40kt depending on the mathematical calculations they had
performed. On other hand, independent and non-government sanctioned organizations puts the figure at the possible 15-20kt range. The
explosion measured 5.54 degrees on the Richter Scale, the PAEC provided the data as public domain in the KNET sources.

[2] Siddiqi, Muhammad Ali. "N-deterrent vital to security, says PM Bhutto" (http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/
Dawn/1995/20 Ap95.html#ndet). Los Angeles Times (April 20th 1995). Muhammad Ali Siddiqi, Los Angeles. . Retrieved 18 November
2011.

Chagai-I 239

[3] "Tale of a love affair that never was: United States-Pakistan Defence Relations", (http://www.defencejournal.com/2002/june/loveaffair.

htm) Hamid Hussain. The Defence Journal, June, 2002.
[4] Volha Charnysh (3rd September 2009). "Pakistan's Nuclear Program" (http://www.findthatfile.com/search-33 13 1 12-hPDF/

download-documents-charnysh-pakistan-analysis-pdf.htm). Nuclear Age Peace Foundation. .
[5] Coll, Steve (2004). Ghost Wars. United States: Penguin Press.
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New Pakistan" (http://books. google.com/books 7id=nYppZ_dEjdIC&lpg=PPl&pg=PPl&hl=en#v=onepage&q&f=false), Pakistan:

Between Mosque and Military, 1 (1 ed.), Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: United Book Press., pp. 87-157, ISBN 0870032232143 ,

978-0-87003-214-1,
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2010-09-26.
[8] Rehman, Shahid-ur (1999), "Chapter 5§The Theoretical Physics Group: A Cue to Manhattan Project?", Long Road to Chagai:, 1 (1 ed.),

Islamabad, Islamabad Capital Territory: Printwise Publications, pp. 55-101, ISBN 969-8500-00-6
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html), Time magazine: 7/13, archived from on 3 June 1985, , retrieved 23 February 2011
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[13] Khan, former chairman of Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission, Munir Ahmad; Munir Ahmad Khan (24 November 1996.). "Salam passes

into History" (in English). The News International (Karachi, Sindh Province: Jang Group of Newspapers): pp. 1—2.
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Islamabad Capital Territory: PB, pp. 49-60, ISBN 969-8500-00-6
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"Pakistan became nuclear state in 1983" (in English). The News International (Karachi, Sindh Province: Jang Group of Newspapers): pp. 1—2.
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30May98.html#poli). Dawn News 1998. . Retrieved 7 May 2012.
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world/pakistan/nuke.htm). Global Security, globalsecurity.org. . Retrieved 2010.
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Jang Group of Newspapers: 1, Friday, 28 May 2010, Jamadi-us-Sani 13, 1431 A.H.,
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[22] "GEO Headlines: America Offers $5Billion against atomic blasts" (http://geo.tv/urdu.htm) (in Urdu). GEO News. .
[23] "Sweeping India off its feet" (http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/pIe/columnists/full_column.php?content_id=75533) (in English

(British)). The Indian Express (Indian Express Group: Indian Express Group): p. 1. Wednesday, 3 August 2005. . Retrieved 201 1.
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Sublette, nuclearweaponarchive.org
[25] FAS.org (11 December 2002). "Pakistan Nuclear Weapons" (http://www.fas.org/nuke/guide/pakistan/nuke/index.html). fas.org. .
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Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists (Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc.) 54 (4): 24-25. ISSN 0096-3402. .
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[28] "Broadband recording of first blasts" (http://eqinfo.ucsd.edu/special_events/nuclear_tests/comparison.php). Broadband Seismic Data

Collection Center. PAEC Mathematics Research Division. . Retrieved 10 May 2012.
[29] http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html
[30] BBC (28 May 1998). "BBC on This Day May 28, 1998" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/28/newsid_2495000/

2495045.stm). BBC. . Retrieved 28 April 2010.
[31] Raja Zulfikar (28 May 1998). "Pakistan builds a neutron bomb" (http://nucnews.net/nucnews/1999nn/9908nn/990818nn.world2.htm).

nuclnet. . Retrieved 17 June 2011.
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2001). . Retrieved 10 May 2012.
[33] nuclear weapon archive (10 December 2001). "1998: The Year of Testing" (http://nuclearweaponarchive.org/Pakistan/PakTests.html).

nuclearweaponarchive.org. .
[34] M.A. Chaudhri, "Pakistan's Nuclear History: Separating Myth from Reality," Defence Journal (Karachi), May 2006.

Chagai-I 240

[35] "A Science Oddyssey: Pakistan's Nuclear Emergence" (http://www.khwarizmi.org/taxonomy/term/51). 19 October 1998. . Retrieved 6

September 2011.
[36] "13th Youm-e-Takbeer to be observed today" (http://www.dunyanews.tv/index.php ?key=Q2F0SUQ9MiNOaWQ9MjcwNTk=). 28 May

2011. . Retrieved 28 July 2011.
[37] "Youm-e-Takbeer being marked today" (http://www.geo.tv/5-28-2009/42960.htm). 28 May 2011. . Retrieved 28 July 201 1.
[38] "Republic of Pakistan: Chagai-I Medal" (http://www.medals.org.uk/pakistan/pakistan048.htm). 26 April 2011. . Retrieved 28 July

2011.
[39] Directorate-Group of Press Release of the Center for Nonproliferation Studies. "World Reaction to Pakistan's nuclear tests" (http://cns.

miis.edu/archive/country_india/wreactpk.htm). May 30, 1998. Center for Nonproliferation Studies, 1998. . Retrieved 12 May 2012.
[40] "1998: World fury at Pakistan's nuclear tests" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/may/28/newsid_2495000/2495045.

stm). BBC News. 28 May 1998. .
[41] Rashid, Senator Pervez (Monday, 13 June of 201 1). "In response to Dr. Abdul Qadeer Khan and Dr. Akram Sehgal" (http://www.jang.

com.pk/jang/jun201 l-daily/14-06-201 l/col2.htm). Senator Pervez Rashid, Senator of Pakistan Muslim League (N) to the Senate

Secretariat of Pakistan.. Senator Pervez Rashid, (note:Text only available in Urdu). . Retrieved 201 1.
[42] Pakistan ends 15-year ties with IMF; Daily Times, 7 September 2004) (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/print.

asp?page=story_7-9-2004_pg7_9) Pakistani Newspaper Article, 2004

Kharan Desert

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The Kharan Desert (Urdu: \j~, ,n qI^U. also known as the Sandy Desert) is a sand desert situated in the Balochistan
province of Pakistan. Kharan desert is Pakistan's second nuclear test site, and the second nuclear test — Codename
Chagai-IIChagai-II — was conducted and supervised by the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) in May
30, 1998. The desert is characterized by extremes of altitude and extreme temperatures in the desert. The Kharan
Desert consists of shifting sand dunes with an underlying pebble-conglomerate floor. The moving dunes reach
heights of between 15 and 30 meters. Level areas between the dunes are a hard-topped pan when dry and a
treacherous, sandy-clay mush when wet. The altitudes of deserts slope from about 1,000m in the north to about 250m
on in the south-west. Average annual rainfall throughout these deserts is well under 100 mm. The desert includes
areas of inland drainage and dry lakes (hamuns). The area is known particularly for its constant mirages and sudden
severe sandstorms. Chagai-IIChagai-IISatellite image of Kharan Desert Information Country Pakistan Test site
Kharan Desert Period May 1998 Number of tests 1-2 Test type Underground nuclear testingUnderground tests
Device type Fission/Fusion Max. yield 40 TNT equivalentkilotons of TNT (unknown operator: u'strong' TJ)
Navigation Previous test Chagai-I Next test NoneChagai-II was the codename of the second Atomic testsatomic test
performed and conducted on 1310hrs (1:10 p.m.) (Pakistan Standard TimePST) on 30 May 1998 by Pakistan. It was
the second tests performed two days after the first tests were conducted on 28 May and were conducted as part of the
Tit for tattit-for-tat policy. Unlike the Ras Koh HillsChagai weapon-testing laboratories, the tests were performed in
an open test site, the Kharan weapon-testing laboratories. The initial goals were to tests the new designs of the
weapon rather than studying the effects and were differed from the first tests as the tests were primary conducted by
Pakistan Pakistan Atomic Energy CommissionAtomic Energy Commission, with the Pakistan Armed Forcesarmed
forces' engineering formations having only a supporting role. The single or two device was performed and was a
boosted weapon-grade plutonium device as against the first tests that contained only uranium devices. With the
performance of the tests made it sum total of six devices having been performed by Pakistan in 1998. Test
preparations The weapon-testing laboratories selections and test sites were initiated by PAEC under Munir Ahmad

Kharan Desert 24 1

Khan. A mathematical and Three-dimensional spacethree-dimensional space Geological surveysurvey was

commenced by nuclear physicist dr. Ishfaq Ahmad assisted by seismologist dr. Ahsan Mubarak.Azam, Rai

Muhammad Saleh (June 2000). "When Mountains Move" (in English) (html). Dr Rai Muhammad Saleh Azam,

professor of Political Science at Sargodha University. Karachi, Sindh Province of Pakistan: The Nation (1999) and

Defence Journal of Pakistan (2000). p. 1. . Retrieved 8 May 2012. The PAEC officials met with Prime minister of

PakistanPrime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto to arrange the preparations and decided to bring the role of armed forces

to provide supplies and logistical support. After the meeting, Bhutto sent a classified telegram to Brigadier

Muhammad Sarfraz, Chief of Staff at the V Corps (Pakistan)V Corps stationed in Quetta, Balochistan Province of

Pakistan. Brigadier Sarfraz was tasked with the arranging an army helicopter, Mil Mi-17, for civilian scientists from

the PAEC; Brigadier Sarfraz was later posted as deputy Engineer-in-Chief (Pakistan Army)E-in-C at the General

Headquarters (Pakistan Army)Army Combatant Headquarters in Rawalpindi. In 1977, Brigadier Sarfraz was

summoned by Chief Martial Law AdministratorCMLA and Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan)Chief of Army Staff

General Muhammad Zia-ul-HaqZia-ul-Haq and tasked him with creating the special military engineering formations

in 1977. The PAEC officials readily agreed that the secondary tests would be scientific in nature with armed forces

playing the engineering roles. The Pakistan Army Corps of Electrical and Mechanical EngineeringSpecial

Development Works (SDW) was given an immediate commission, having the members from military engineering

formations, it directly reported to Chief of Army Staff. Its first commander was Brigadier Sarfraz who entrusted with

the task of preparing the weapon-testing laboratories and sites. The SDW later elevated as a nuclear variant of the

Pakistan Army's famous Frontier Works Organisation (FWO), and commanded by Brigadier Sarfraz since its given

commission. The weapon-testing laboratories at Kharan had consisted of 24 cold test sites, 46 short tunnels and 35

underground accommodations for troops and command, control and monitoring facilities. The site was 300 by 200

feet and was L-shaped horizontal shafts in the testing labs. The weapon-testing laboratories had an array of extensive

cables, sensors and monitoring stations. THe SDW took 2-3 years to prepare and were completed in 1980, before

Pakistan acquired the capability to physically develop a atomic bomb.. The weapon-testing labs were located at

Kharan, in a desert valley between the Ras Koh Hills to the north and Siahan Range to the south. Carey Sublette (2

January 2002). "Historical Background:§Preparing to Build the Bomb". Carey Sublette of the nuclear weapon

archive. . Retrieved 2011. Subsequently, the Chagai Hills-Ras Koh-Kharan areas became restricted entry zones and

were closed to the public. After the Brigadie Sarfraz was sent back the Army Headquarters, Lieutenant-General Zahid

Ali Akbar Khan was appointed as Engineer-in-Chief (Pakistan Army)Engineer-in-Chief of the Pakistan Army Corps

of Engineers (PACE) and the Military Engineering Service, as well as the test commander of the Special Works

Development (SDW).Rehman, Shahidur, Long Road to Chagai: §The nuclear development under Army: General

Zahid Ali, Printwise Publications, Islamabad (1999) The modernization of the tests labs were undertaken by Frontier

Works OrganisationFrontier Works Organization (FWO); the FWO uncredited work in the construction of the

weapon-testings labs in Kharan Desert, and had supervised the complete construction on the sites along with SDW.

The construction was supervised by the Pakistan Army Engineering CorpsPakistan Army Corps of Engineers's

combat engineer then-Lieutenant-Colonel Zulfikar Ali Khan and the Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission under the

leadership of Chairman Mr. Munir Ahmad Khan who co-assigned this task to Member (Technical), Pakistan Atomic

Energy CommissionPAEC, Ishfaq Ahmad. Tests experiments and predictionThe tests were conducted and performed

on 30 May 30 1998 at 1310Hourhrs (1:10 p.m.) (Pakistan Standard TimePST). The device was a miniaturized

Boosted fission weaponboosted-fission Weapons-grade#Weapons-grade plutoniumweapon-grade plutonium device

Nuclear weapon yieldyielding 60% of the first tests performed two days earlier. The yield of a nuclear device was

reported to be 18-20 kilotonnekt of TNT equivalent. On the other hand, the international observers estimated their

calculation based on the results and data their received from their computer and approximating the figure at mere

2Kt.http://books.google.co.in/books?id=vAsAAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA24&dq=chagai+claimed+yield&hl=en&sa=X&ei=LMU4T4XB:

crater now takes the place of what used to be a small hillock in the rolling desert, marking the ground zero of the

nuclear test there.. The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (or PAEC) had tested one or more plutonium nuclear

devices, and the results and data of the devices were successful as it was expected by the Pakistan's mathematicians

Kharan Desert 242

and seismologists. "Nuclear Tests:§The Plutonium Device". Federation of American Scientists (FAS) and Pakistan
Atomic Scientists Foundation (PASF). December 11, 2002. . Retrieved 2011. The devices were successfully tested
and supervised by PAEC's Chief Technical Member (CTM) Dr. Samar Mubarakmand.. Cultural legacyMay 28 has
been officially declared as Youm-e-Takbeer (Day of Greatness) and as well as National Science Day in Pakistan to
commemorate and remembrance of the first five tests that were carried out in May 28, 1998. "13th Youm-e-Takbeer
to be observed today". 28 May 2011. . Retrieved 2011. The day was officially signed by the then-Prime Minister of
Pakistan Nawaz Sharif. The day is celebrated by giving awards (such as Chagai-Medal) to various individuals and
industries in the field of science and industries. "Youm-e-Takbeer being marked today". 28 May 2011. . Retrieved
2011. Government also established the Chagai-I Medal and it was first awarded to the scientists of Pakistan in 1998
who were witnessed the tests. "Republic of Pakistan: Chagai-I Medal". 28 May 2011. . Retrieved 2011. The graphite
mountains are visibly shown in the gold medallion and equal ribbon stripes of yellow, red and white. Preparations
and Test TeamsPakistan Atomic Energy CommissionSamar Mubarakmand, Member (Technical), Pakistan Atomic
Energy Commission. Muhammad Hafeez Qureshi, Head of Directorate of Technical Development (DTD) Man
Burney, Director of Directorate of Technical Procurement (DTP). Tariq Salija, Director of the Radiation and Istope
Applications Division (RIAD). Muhammad Jameel, Director of Directorate of Science and Engineering Services
(DSES) Muhammad Arshad, the Chief Scientific Officer (CSO). Tasneem M. ShahTasneem Shah, Director of
Computational Fluid Dynamics Division, A. Q. Khan Research LaboratoriesKRL, (CFDD) Pakistan Army Corps of
EngineersLieutenant General Zulfikar Ali Khan Engineer-in-Chief (Pakistan Army)Engineer-in-Chief of the System
EngineeringSystem and Combat Engineering Division of the Pakistan ArmyPakistan Army Corps of
EngineersReferencesExternal links Chagai-II Test on YouTube "Comparison of India's and Pakinstan's nuclear tests
and the 30 May, 1998 Afghanistan earthquake" (php). Broadband Seismic Data Collection Center. Broadband
Seismic Data Collection Center, Pakistan Atomic Scientist Federation (PASF), Pakistan Nuclear Society, Pakistan
Seismic Department (PAEC), and Pakistan Meteorological Department. 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2011. "KNET
recording of second Pakistani nuclear test waveforms" (php). Broadband Seismic Data Collection Center. Broadband
Seismic Data Collection Center, Pakistan Atomic Scientist Federation (PASF), Pakistan Nuclear Society, Pakistan
Seismic Department (PAEC), and Pakistan Meteorological Department. 2010-11-23. Retrieved 2011.

243

Other armed engagements

Indian integration of Junagadh

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Junagadh was a princely state of India, located in what is now Gujarat, outside but under the suzerainty of British
India. In the independence and partition of British India of 1947, the 562 princely states were given a choice of
whether to join the new Dominion of India or the newly formed state of Pakistan or to remain independent. The
Nawab of Junagadh, Muhammad Mahabat Khanji III, a Muslim whose ancestors had ruled Junagadh and small
principalities for some two hundred years, decided that Junagadh should become part of Pakistan, much to the
displeasure of many of the people of the state, an overwhelming majority of whom were Hindus. The Nawab
acceded to the Dominion of Pakistan on 15 September 1947, against the advice of Lord Mountbatten, arguing that
Junagadh joined Pakistan by sea. History introduction at hellojunagadh.com: "On September 15, 1947, Nawab
Mohammad Mahabat Khanji III of Junagadh, a princely state located on the south-western end of Gujarat and having
no common border with Pakistan, chose to accede to Pakistan ignoring Mountbatten's views, arguing that Junagadh
adjoined Pakistan by sea. The rulers of two states that were subject to the suzerainty of Junagadh Mangrol and
Babariawad reacted by declaring their independence from Junagadh and acceding to India." The principality of
Babariawad and Sheikh of Mangrol reacted by claiming independence from Junagadh and accession to India. When
Pakistan accepted the Nawab's Instrument of Accession on 16 September, the Government of India was outraged that
Muhammad Ali Jinnah could accept the accession of Junagadh despite his argument that Hindus and Muslims could
not live as one nation, though this was a seen as a strategy to get a plebiscite held for the case of Kashmir which was
a Muslim majority with a Hindu ruler. Raj mohan GandhiGandhi, Rajmohan (1991). Patel: A Life. India: Navajivan.
p. 292. ASIN B0006EYQ0A. Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel believed that if Junagadh was permitted to go to Pakistan, it
would exacerbate the communal tension already simmering in Gujarat. The princely state was surrounded on all of
its land borders by India, with an outlet onto the Arabian Sea. The unsettled conditions in Junagadh had led to a
cessation of all trade with India and the food position became precarious. With the region in crisis, the Nawab,
fearing for his life, felt forced to flee to Karachi with his family and his followers, and there he established a
provisional government. Vallabhbhai Patel offered Pakistan time to reverse its acceptance of the accession and to
hold a plebiscite in Junagadh. Samaldas Gandhi formed a government-in-exile, the Aarzi Hukumat (in Urdu:Aarzi:
Temporary, Hukumat: Government) of the people of Junagadh. Eventually, Patel ordered the forcible annexation of
Junagadh's three principalities. Junagadh's state government, facing financial collapse and lacking forces with which
to resist Indian force, invited the Government of India to take control. A plebiscite was conducted in December, in
which approximately 99% of the people chose India over Pakistan. Rajmohan GandhiGandhi, Rajmohan (1991).
Patel: A Life. India: Navajivan. p. 438. ASIN B0006EYQ0A.Background After the announcement by the last
Viceroy of India, Lord Mountbatten, on 3 June 1947, of the intention to partition British India, the British parliament
passed the Indian Independence Act 1947 on 11 July 1947. as a result, the native states were left with these choices:
to remain independent or to accede to either of the two new British Dominionsdominions, the Union of India or the
Dominion of Pakistan. The Indian Government made efforts to persuade Nawab Sahab of Junagadh to accede to

Indian integration of Junagadh 244

India, but he remained firm. The Indian minister V. P. Menon came to request an accession to India, threatening
consequences in case of denial. The Nawab however decided to accede to Pakistan, and an announcement to this
effect was made in the gazette of Junagadh (Dastrural Amal Sarkar Junagadh) on 15 August 1947. Instrument of
accession Immediately after making the announcement in Dastrural Amal Sarkar Junagadh, the Jungadh government
communicated to Pakistan its wish to accede, and a delegation headed by Ismail was sent to Karachi with the
Instrument of Accession signed by the Nawab. The Constituent Assembly of Pakistan considered the proposal in
detail and approved it. The Quaid-e-Azam, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, as Governor General of Pakistan, counter-signed
the Instrument of Accession on 15 September 1947. This was notified in the Gazette of Pakistan and Dasturul Amal,
the Gazette of Junagadh, on that date. The Instrument of Accession provided for the right of the Pakistan legislature
to legislate in the areas of Defence and Communication, as well as others. Although the territory of Junagadh was
geographically not adjoining the existing Pakistan, it had a link by sea through the Veraval Port of Junagadh.
Menon's reaction V. P. Menon, the Secretary of the States department of the Government of India, travelled to
Junagadh on 17 September 1947 and met Sir Shah Nawaz Bhutto, the dewan (or Chief Minister) of Junagadh.
Menon said he had brought a message from the Indian Government and wished to deliver it to the Nawab in person.
Bhutto said he could not arrange a meeting with the Nawab as he was not feeling well. Menon expressed displeasure,
but conveyed the message of the Indian Government to Bhutto, insisting that Junagadh should withdraw its accession
to Pakistan. Bhutto told Menon that the accession was now complete and that according to international law only the
Government of Pakistan was responsible. Menon went to Bombay and met Samaldas Gandhi, a journalist of Rajkot
who was related to Mohandas Karamchand GandhiMohandas Gandhi, and others, and unfolded the scheme of
"Arziee Hukumat" (Provisional Government). On 24 September 1947, Mohandas K. Gandhi condemned the action
of the Junagadh government in a prayer meeting held at Delhi. Provisional government (Aarzee Hukumat)In the
meanwhile, there were exchanges between the governments of India and Pakistan. Pakistan told the Indian
Government that the accession was in accordance with the Scheme of Independence announced by the outgoing
British and that Junagadh was now part of Pakistan. While this exchange of correspondence was going on, India
closed all its borders to Junagadh and stopped the movement of goods, transport and postal articles. In view of
worsening situation, the Nawab and his family left Junagadh and arrived in Karachi on 25 October 1947. On 27
October 1947, Bhutto, as Chief Minister of Junagadh, wrote a letter to Jinnah explaining the critical situation of
which the State government. As the situation worsened, he wrote again on 28 October 1947 to Ikramullah, Secretary
of the Pakistan Ministry of Foreign Affairs, seeking help and directions. When all hopes for assistance from Pakistan
were lost, Bhutto wrote by telegram on 1 November 1947 to Nawab Saheb at Karachi, explaining the situation and
the danger to life and property, considering an armed attack was imminent. In a return telegram, the Nawab
authorised Bhutto to act in the best interests of the Muslim population of Junagadh. A meeting of the Junagadh State
Council was called on 5 November to discuss the critical situation. The Council authorised Bhutto to take
appropriate action. He sent Captain Harvey Johnson, a senior member of the Council of Ministers, to Rajkot to meet
Indian officials. Another meeting of the Junagadh State Council was convened on 7 November, and some prominent
citizens of Junagadh state were also invited. The meeting continued till 3 o'clock in the morning and decided that
instead of surrendering to the "Provisional Government", the Indian Government should be requested to take over
the administration of Junagadh to protect the lives of its citizens, which were being threatened by Provisional
Government forces. On 8 November, Bhutto sent a letter to Nilam Butch, Provincial Head of the Indian Government
in Rajkot, requesting him to help to restore law and order in Junagadh to prevent bloodshed. Harvey Johnson took
the message to Rajkot. The head of the Indian administration telephoned V. P. Menon in Delhi and read out the
letter. Menon immediately rushed to see Jawaharlal Nehru and explained the situation. After consultation with other
ministers and V. B. Patel, the home minister, a formal order was drafted and a notification issued announcing the
take-over of Junagadh at the request of its Chief Minister. The notification promised a referendum in due course.
Bhutto left Junagadh for Karachi on the night of 8 November 1947. On 9 November, the Indian Air Force flew
several sorties at low level over Junagadh. Entry of Indian forces Soon columns of Indian tanks and other vehicles
carrying Indian soldiers entered Junagadh state. At 6 p.m. on 9 November, Captain Harvey Johnson and Chief

Indian integration of Junagadh 245

Secretary Gheewala, a civil servant of Junagadh state, formally handed over the charge of the State to the Indian
Government. On the same day, Nehru sent a telegram to Liaquat Ali Khan about the Indian take-over of Junagadh.
Khan sent a return telegram to Nehru stating that Junagadh was Pakistani territory, and nobody except the Pakistan
government was authorised to invite anybody to Junagadh. He also accused the Indian Government of naked
aggression on Pakistan's territory and of violating international law. The Government of Pakistan strongly opposed
the Indian occupation. Nehru wrote In view of special circumstances pointed out by Junagadh Dewan that is the
Prime Minister of Junagadh - our Regional Commissioner at Rajkot has taken temporarily charge of Junagadh
administration. This has been done to avoid disorder and resulting chaos. We have, however, no desire to continue
this arrangement and wish to find a speedy solution in accordance with the wishes of the people of Junagadh. We
have pointed out to you previously that final decision should be made by means of referendum or plebiscite. We
would be glad to discuss this question and allied matters affecting Junagadh with representatives of your
Government at the earliest possible moment convenient to you. We propose to invite Nawab of Junagadh to send his
representatives to this conference. The Government of Pakistan protested, saying that the accession of the state to
Pakistan was already accepted. In reply to the above telegram, the Prime Minister of Pakistan sent the following:
Your telegram informing that your Government had taken charge of Junagadh was received by me on November 10,
1947. Your action in taking over State Administration and sending Indian troops to state without any authority from
Pakistan Government and indeed without our knowledge, is a clear violation of Pakistan territory and breach of
International law. Indian Government's activities on accession of Junagadh to Pakistan have all been directed to
force the State to renounce accession and all kinds of weapons have been used by you to achieve this end. We
consider your action in taking charge of Junagadh Administration and sending Indian troops to occupy Junagadh to
be a direct act of hostility against Pakistan Dominion. We demand that you should immediately withdraw your
forces, and relinquish charge of administration to the rightful ruler and stop people of Union of India from invading
Junagadh and committing acts of violence. This was the followed by a Press Statement made by the Prime Minister
of Pakistan. It was communicated to Prime Minister of India on November 16, 1947 and read as follows: In spite of
the gravest provocation, we have refrained from any action which should result in armed conflict. We could with full
justification and legal right could have sent our forces to Junagadh but at no time since the accession of state, was a
single soldier sent by us to Junagadh and our advice throughout to the State Authorities was to exercise the greatest
restraint. Manavadar, another State which had acceded to Pakistan and Mangrol and Babariawad have also been
occupied by Indian troops. Immediately after the take-over of the state, all rebel Muslim officials of the state were
put behind the bars. They included Ismail Abrehani, a senior minister in the Junagadh government, who had taken
the instrument of Accession to the Quaid-e-Azam for his signature. Abrehani refused to leave Junagadh, even when
he was offered in jail the option of going to Pakistan, saying that despite its occupation Junagadh was part of
Pakistan according to international law and he preferred to remain. He stayed and later died in Junagadh. Plebiscite
A plebiscite was held on 20 February 1948, in which all but 91 out of 190,870 who voted (from an electorate of
201,457) voted to join India, ie. 99% of the population voted to join India. A.G NOORANI. "Of Jinnah and
Junagadh". . Retrieved May 27, 2011. Later arrangements Junagadh became part of the Indian Saurashtra State until
November 1, 1956, when Saurashtra became part of Bombay State. Bombay State was split into the linguistic states
of Gujarat and Maharashtra in 1960, and Junagadh is now one of the modern districts of Saurasthra in Gujarat.
References

Siachen conflict 246

Siachen conflict

The Siachen Conflict, sometimes referred to as the Siachen War, is a military conflict between India and Pakistan
over the disputed Siachen Glacier region in Kashmir. A cease-fire went into effect in 2003. The conflict began in
1984 with India's successful Operation Meghdoot during which it wrested control of the Siachen Glacier from
Pakistan and forced the Pakistanis to retreat west of the Saltoro Ridge. India has established control over all of the 70
kilometres (unknown operator: u'strong 1 mi) long Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as the
three main passes of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier — Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La.
Pakistan controls the glacial valleys immediately west of the Saltoro Ridge. According to TIME magazine, India

2

gained more than 1000 square miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ) of territory because of its military
operations in Siachen.

Conflict

The Siachen glacier is the highest battleground on earth, where India and Pakistan have fought intermittently

since April 13, 1984. Both countries maintain permanent military presence in the region at a height of over 6000
metres (unknown operator: u'strong' ft). More than 2000 people have died in this inhospitable terrain, mostly due
to weather extremes and the natural hazards of mountain warfare.

The conflict in Siachen stems from the incompletely demarcated territory on the map beyond the map coordinate
known as NJ9842. The 1972 Simla Agreement did not clearly mention who controlled the glacier, merely stating that
from the NJ9842 location the boundary would proceed "thence north to the glaciers." UN officials presumed there
would be no dispute between India and Pakistan over such a cold and barren region.

Oropolitics

In 1949, a Cease-Fire Line Agreement(CFL) was signed and ratified by India, Pakistan and the UN Military
Observer Group that delineated entire CFL. In 1956-58, a scientific team led by the Geological Survey of India
recorded its findings publicly including information about the Siachen and other glaciers.

After Pakistan ceded Shaksgam Valley to China in a boundary agreement in 1963, Pakistan started giving approval
to western expedition to the east of mountain K2. In 1957 Pakistan permitted a British expedition under Eric

ro]

Shipton to approach the Siachen through the Bilafond La, and recce Saltoro Kangri. Five years later a
Japanese-Pakistani expedition put two Japanese and a Pakistani Army climber on top of Saltoro Kangri. These
were early moves in this particular game of oropolitics.

Maps from Pakistan, the United Nations and other global atlases depicted the CFL correctly till around 1967-72.
The United States Defense Mapping Agency (now National Geospatial-Intelligence Agency) began in about 1967 to
show international boundary on their Tactical Pilotage Charts as proceeding from NJ9842 east-northeast to the
Karakoram Pass at 5,534 m (18,136 ft) on the China border without justification or documentation Numerous
governmental and private cartographers and atlas producers followed suit. This resulted in the US cartographically
giving the entire unknown operator: u',' square kilometers (unknown operator: u'strong'unknown operator:
u','sq mi) of the Siachen-Saltoro area to Pakistan.

In the 1970s and early 1980s several mountaineering expeditions applied to Pakistan to climb high peaks in the
Siachen area due in part to U.S Defense Mapping Agency and most other maps and atlases showing it on the
Pakistani side of the line. Pakistan granted a number of permits. This in turn reinforced the Pakistani claim on the
area, as these expeditions arrived on the glacier with a permit obtained from the Government of Pakistan. Teram
Kangri I (7465 m/unknown operator: u'strong' ft) and Teram Kangri II (7406 m/unknown operator: u'strong' ft)
were climbed in 1975 by a Japanese expedition led by H. Katayama, which approached through Pakistan via the
Bilafond La. [12]

Siachen conflict

247

The Indian government and military took notice, and protested the cartography. Prior to 1984 neither India nor
Pakistan had any permanent presence in the area. Having become aware of the errant US military maps and the
permit incidents, Colonel Narendra "Bull" Kumar, then commanding officer of the Indian Army's High Altitude
Warfare School, mounted an Army expedition to the Siachen area as a counter-exercise. In 1978 this expedition
climbed Teram Kangri II, claiming it as a first ascent in a typical 'oropolitical' riposte. Unusually for the normally
secretive Indian Army, the news and photographs of this expedition were published in 'The Illustrated Weekly of
India', a widely-circulated popular magazine.

The first public acknowledgment of the maneuvers and the developing conflict situation in the Siachen was an
abbreviated article titled "High Politics in the Karakoram" by Joydeep Sircar in The Telegraph newspaper of
Calcutta in 1982. The full text was re-printed as "Oropolitics" in the Alpine Journal, London, in 1984.

Skirmish

At army headquarters in Rawalpindi, Pakistani generals decided they had better stake a claim to Siachen before India
did. Islamabad then committed an intelligence blunder, according to a now retired Pakistani army colonel. "They
ordered Arctic-weather gear from a London outfitters who also supplied the Indians," says the colonel. "Once the
Indians got wind of it, they ordered 300 outfits — twice as many as we had — and rushed their men up to Siachen."

Reportedly with specific intelligence of a possible Pakistani operation,
India launched Operation Meghdoot (named after the divine cloud
messenger in a Sanskrit play by Kalidasa) on 13 April 1984 when the
Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army and the Indian Air Force went
into the glacier region. India was soon in control of the area, beating
Pakistan to the Saltoro Ridge high ground by about a week. The two
northern passes — Sia La and Bilafond La — were quickly secured by
India. When the Pakistanis arrived at the region in 1984, they found a
300-man Indian battalion dug into the highest mountaintops. ' The

contentious area is about 900 square miles (unknown operator:

2 ri7i
u'strong' km ) to nearly 1000 square miles (unknown operator:

2 n ri

u'strong' km ) of territory. After 1984, Pakistan launched several

attempts to displace the Indian forces, but with little success. The most

well known was in 1987, when an attempt was made by Pakistan to

dislodge India from the area. The attack was masterminded by Pervez

Musharraf (later President of Pakistan) heading a newly raised elite

SSG commando unit raised with United States Special Operations

ri9i

Forces help in the area. A special garrison with eight thousand

troops was built at Khapalu. The immediate aim was to capture

Bilafond La but after bitter fighting that included hand to hand combat, the Pakistanis were thrown back and the

positions remained the same. The only Param Vir Chakra — India's highest gallantry award — to be awarded for

combat in the Siachen area went to Naib Subedar Bana Singh (retired as Subedar Major/Honorary Captain), who in a

daring daylight raid assaulted and captured a Pakistani post atop a 22,000 foot (6,700 m) peak, now named Bana

Post, after climbing a 457 m (1500 feet) ice cliff face. [20][21]

A memorial at the headquarters of the Dogra

Regiment of the Indian Army in remembrance of

members of the regiment who died or served in

the Siachen Conflict

Siachen conflict

248

Ground situation

In his memoirs, former Pakistani president General Pervez Musharraf

states that Pakistan lost almost 900 square miles (unknown operator:

2 ri7i

u'strong' km ) of territory that it claimed. TIME states that the

Indian advance captured nearly 1000 square miles (unknown

2 n si

operator: u'strong' km ) of territory claimed by Pakistan.

Further attempts to reclaim positions were launched by Pakistan in
1990, 1995, 1996 and even in early 1999, just prior to the Lahore
Summit. The 1995 attack by Pakistan SSG was significant as it
resulted in 40 casualties for Pakistan troops without any changes in the
positions. An Indian IAF MI- 17 helicopter was shot down in 1996.

The Indian army controls all of the 70 kilometres (unknown operator:

u'strong' mi) long Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as
well as the three main passes of the Saltoro Ridge immediately west of
the glacier — Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La — thus holding onto
the tactical advantage of high ground

[22] [23] [24] [25]

Siachen glacier

Red dotted line is AGPL, right of which is
Siachen Glacier controlled by Indian army.

*1 *-

ptPIP

fc_

The Pakistanis control the glacial valley just five kilometers southwest
of Gyong La. The Pakistanis have been unable get up to the crest of the
Saltoro Ridge, while the Indians cannot come down and abandon their
strategic high posts.

The line between where Indian and Pakistani troops are presently holding onto their respective posts is being
increasingly referred to as the Actual Ground Position Line (AGPL)

Pakistani Soldiers in Siachen Sector (2012)

[26] [27]

Severe conditions

A cease-fire went into effect in 2003. Even before then, every year more soldiers were killed because of severe
weather than enemy firing. The two sides by 2003 had lost an estimated 2,000 personnel primarily due to frostbite,
avalanches and other complications. Together, the nations have about 150 manned outposts along the glacier, with
some 3,000 troops each. Official figures for maintaining these outposts are put at ~$300 and ~$200 million for India
and Pakistan respectively. India built the world's highest helipad on the glacier at Point Sonam, 21,000 feet
(6,400 m) above the sea level, to supply its troops. The problems of reinforcing or evacuating the high-altitude
ridgeline have led to India's development of the Dhruv Mk III helicopter, powered by the Shakti engine, which was
flight-tested to lift and land personnel and stores from the Sonam post, the highest permanently manned post in the

no] T2Q1

world. India also installed the world's highest telephone booth on the glacier.

Kargil War

One of the factors behind the Kargil War in 1999 when Pakistan sent infiltrators to occupy vacated Indian posts
across the Line of Control was their belief that India would be forced to withdraw from Siachen in exchange of a
Pakistani withdrawal from Kargil. Both sides had previously desired to disengage from the costly military outposts
but after the Kargil War, India decided to maintain its military outposts on the glacier, wary of further Pakistani
incursions into Kashmir if they vacate from the Siachen Glacier posts without an official recognition from Pakistan
of the current positions.

Siachen conflict 249

Visits

During her tenure as Prime Minister of Pakistan, Ms Benazir Bhutto, visited the area west of Gyong La, making her
the first premier from either side to get to the Siachen region. On June 12, 2005, Prime Minister Manmohan Singh
became the first Indian Prime Minister to visit the area, calling for a peaceful resolution of the problem. In 2007, the
President of India, Abdul Kalam became the first head of state to visit the area.

The Chief of Staff of the US Army, General George Casey on October 17, 2008 visited the Siachen Glacier along
with Indian Army Chief, General Deepak Kapoor. The US General visited for the purpose of "developing concepts
and medical aspects of fighting in severe cold conditions and high altitude".

Since September 2007, India has welcomed mountaineering and trekking expeditions to the forbidding glacial
heights. The expeditions have been meant to show the international audience that Indian troops hold "almost all
dominating heights" on the important Saltoro Ridge west of Siachen Glacier, and to show that Pakistani troops are
not within 15 miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km) of the 43.5-mile (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km)
Siachen Glacier. An October 2008 trek was "being undertaken to send a message that every civilian with the help
of military can visit this part of the country," a senior Indian army officer explained. The civilian treks to Siachen
started despite vehement protests from Pakistan which termed it India's "tourism" in "disputed territory". Pakistan
conducts similar expeditions in nearby areas under its control with no requirement of a military liaison officer to
accompany trekkers; their permit formalities are simpler, often taking just two weeks. Pakistan in 2008 did not lodge
a formal protest against the treks and India too has also kept it a low key affair, with Indian Defence Minister A.K.
Antony skipping the flagging off ceremony.

2012 avalanche

In the early morning of 7 April 2012, an avalanche hit a Pakistani military headquarters in the area, burying over 120
Pakistani soldiers and civilian contractors.

Operations

• Operation Meghdoot ( 1 984)

Notes

[I] Wirsing, Robert. Pakistan's security underZia, 1977—1988: the policy imperatives of a peripheral Asian state. Palgrave Macmillan, 1991.
ISBN 0-312-06067-X, 9780312060671.

[2] Child, Greg. Thin air: encounters in the Himalayas. The Mountaineers Books, 1998. ISBN 0-89886-588-3, 9780898865882.

[3] "The Himalayas War at the Top Of the World" (http://www.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0, 9171, 958254-2, 00. html). Time. July 31,

1989. .
[4] VAUSE, Mikel. Peering Over the Edge: The Philosophy of Mountaineering, p. 194.
[5] CHILD, Greg. Mixed Emotions: Mountaineering Writings, p. 147.

[6] Modern world history- Chapter-The Indian subcontinent achieves independence/The Coldest War.
[7] Facts vs bluff on Siachen, Kayani's suggestion worth pursuing (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2012/20120421/edit.htm), B.G. Verghese,

Saturday, April 21, 2012, Chandigarh, India
[8] Himalayan Journal Vol. 21
[9] Himalayan Journal Vol. 25
[10] "2003 article about Siachen in Outside magazine" (http://outsideonline.com/outside/features/200302/200302_siachen_7.html).

Outsideonline.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-15.

[II] Trivedi, Ramesh (2008). India's Relations with Her Neighbours (http://books. google. co.in/books?id=-VUgSG8bcP0C&dq=Siachen+
cartographic+aggression+USA&source=gbs_navlinks_s). Gyan Publishing House, pp. 220. ISBN 9788182054387 8182054389. .

[12] SANGAKU71

[13] "Outside magazine article about Siachen battleground" (http://outsideonline.com/outside/features/200302/200302_siachen_l.html).

Outsideonline.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-15.
[14] Dutta, Sujan (2006-05-15). "The Telegraph - Calcutta : Nation" (http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060515/asp/nation/story_6221947.

asp). Calcutta, India: Telegraphindia.com. . Retrieved 2011-04-15.

Siachen conflict 250

[15] Alpine Journal, 1984

[16] "War at the Top of the World" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1079528-l,00.html). Time. November 7, 2005. .

[17] Pervez Musharraf (2006). In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-8344-9.(pp. 68-69)

[18] The Himalayas War at the Top Of the World (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958254-2,00.html) July 31, 1989 -

TIME
[19] J. N. Dixit. India-Pakistan in war & peace. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-30472-5. (pp. 39)

[20] "The Siachen Conflict: 1984 Onwards" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/History/1984.html). .
[21] Siachen: Frozen disengagement (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2011/20110606/edit.htm#6), Maj Gen Raj Mehta (Retd), Monday, June

6, 2011, tribuneindia.com
[22] See http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE6-l/Siachen.html for perhaps the most detailed treatment of the geography of

the conflict, including its early days, and under section "3." the current status of control of Gyong La, contrary to the oft-copied misstatement

in the old error-plagued summary at http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/siachen.htm
[23] NOORANI, A.G. (Mar. 10, 2006). "For the first time, the leaders of India and Pakistan seem close to finding a solution to the Kashmir

problem." (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2304/stories/200603 10001704400.htm). A working paper on Kashmir. . Retrieved April 29,

2012.
[24] "Indians have been able to hold on to the tactical advantage of the high ground Most of India's many outposts are west of the Siachen

Glacier along the Saltoro Range. Bearak, Barry (May 23, 1999). "THE COLDEST WAR; Frozen in Fury on the Roof of the World" (http://

query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9807EFDA1431F930A15756C0A96F958260&sec=&spon=&&scp=l&sq="May23, 1999"

"Roof of the World"&st=cse). The New York Times. . Retrieved 2009-02-20.
[25] In an academic study with detailed maps and satellite images, co-authored by brigadiers from both the Pakistani and Indian military, pages

16 and 27: "Since 1984, the Indian army has been in physical possession of most of the heights on the Saltoro Range west of the Siachen

Glacier, while the Pakistan army has held posts at lower elevations of western slopes of the spurs emanating from the Saltoro ridgeline. The

Indian army has secured its position on the ridgeline." Hakeem, Asad; Gurmeet Kanwal , Michael Vannoni, Gaurav Rajen (2007-09-01).

"Demilitarization of the Siachen Conflict Zone" (http://www.cmc.sandia.gov/cmc-papers/sand20075670.pdf). Sandia Report. Sandia

National Laboratories, Albuquerque, NM, USA. . Retrieved 2009-02-20.
[26] Confirm ground position line on Siachen: BJP (http://www.hindu.com/2006/04/29/stories/2006042906591200.htm) - April 29, 2006,

The Hindu
[27] Guns to fall silent on Indo-Pak borders (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_26-l l-2003_pgl_l) November 26, 2003

— Daily Times
[28] Shukla, Ajai. In Siachen, Dhruv proves a world-heater (http://www.business-standard.com/india/news/

in-siachen-dhruv-provesworld-beater/427533/), (March 7, 2011). Business Standard. New Delhi.
[29] India Installs World's Highest Phone Booth Soldiers Fighting Along Kashmir Glacier Can Now Call Families, Army Says — Denver Rocky

Mountain News — Highbeam Research (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/lPl-54801 1 l.html)
[30] India opens Siachen to trekkers (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/India_opens_Siachen_to_trekkers/articleshow/2363583.cms) Times

of India 13 Sep 2007
[31] "Pakistan resumes search for 135 buried by avalanche" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-17643625). BBC News. 8 April 2012. .

Retrieved 28 April 2012.
[32] "Huge search for trapped Pakistani soldiers" (http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2012/04/20124755454785414.html). Al Jazeera

English. 7 April 2012. . Retrieved 7 April 2012.

References

• Myra MacDonald (2008) Heights of Madness: One Woman's Journey in Pursuit of a Secret War, Rupa, New
Delhi ISBN 81-291-1292-2. The first full account of the Siachen war to be told from the Indian and Pakistani
sides.

• Siachen: Conflict Without End by V.R. Raghavan

External links

• The Coldest War (http://outsideonline.com/outside/features/200302/200302_siachen_l.html)

• Time report (http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171, 1079528,00. html)

• Siachen: The stalemate continues (http://www.kashmirsentinel.eom/aprl999/3.9.html)

Operation Brasstacks 25 1

Operation Brasstacks

The Operation Brasstacks was a codename of a large military exercise undertaken by the Indian Army in Rajasthan
region of India during November 1986 and March 1987. It was one of the largest mobilizations of Indian Armed
Forces in the Indian subcontinent. Many regard this as one of the most critical points in the relationships between
India and Pakistan with regard to nuclear war. The exercise's magnitude and closeness to the border caused a
situation where a war between India and Pakistan looked imminent. There is still a considerable debate regarding the
purpose of the exercise as many believe that India was preparing for a war against Pakistan, even though the stated
objective of Operation Brasstacks was to test new concepts of mechanization, mobility, and air support devised by
General Sundarji.

Indian army rationale and moves

The Chief of Staff of the Indian Army, General Krishnaswamy Sundarrajan (popularly known as Sundarji), at that
time, advocated for modern methods of land-based warfare and professionalism in the Indian Army. According to
General Sundarji, Operation Brasstacks was carried out to test new concepts of mechanization, mobility, and air
support.

The scale of the operation was bigger than any NATO exercise and the biggest land exercise since World War II.
According to retired Lieutenant-General PN Hoon, commander of the Western Military Command of the Indian
Army, Operation Brasstacks was a mobilization of the entire army of India. The exercise took place in the deserts of
Rajasthan instead of the sensitive regions of Kashmir and the then restive Punjab. At one point of time nearly
400,000 Indian army troops were deployed directly across the Sindh Province of Pakistan. The magnitude and large
scale direction of the exercise led to Pakistan fears that India was displaying an overwhelming conventional
superiority and was planning to invade Pakistan, and dismember it by surgical strikes, as it did with East Pakistan
during the Indo-Pak 1971 Winter war.

Pakistan's response

Pakistan's response was to mobilize its entire V Corps and Southern Air Command, near the Indian state of Punjab.
Then-President and Chief of Army Staff of the Pakistan Army, General Zia-ul-Haq viewed the exercise as a direct
threat and challenge to Pakistan's existence, and issued commands Armoured Corps and entire V Corps to move to
the front lines. Meanwhile, Pakistan Air Force proceeded with Pakistan Army, and the Southern Air Command was
put on high-alert directly reporting to Chief of Air Staff of Pakistan Air Force Air Chief Marshal Jamal Ahmad
Khan.

In order to remind the Indian Armed Forces of the possible repercussions of war with Pakistan General Zia-ul-Haq
famously said: "If your [Indian Armed] Forces cross our [Pakistan] borders by even an inch, we are going to
annihilate your cities", indicating that if necessary, Pakistanis will not hesitate to use nuclear weapons, as first strike
policy, in order to defend their motherland. Many defence analysts saw this statement as the first real, although
subtle, confirmation of Pakistan's development of nuclear weapons and discouraged an Indian invasion of Pakistan's
territory.

By mid January, both the Indian army and the Pakistan army were facing each other on the frontiers. The situation
could have potentially lead to a war between a de facto nuclear weapon state (India — who had already conducted a
nuclear test in 1974 codename Smiling Buddha) and a state that was believed to be developing nuclear weapons at
that time (Pakistan).

Operation Brasstacks 252

End of Operation Brasstacks

According to events that played out and stance taken by the Indian army, Operation Brasstacks was only an exercise
and not supposed to be a provocative one. The media, particularly the western media, was involved after this and
intense diplomatic maneuvers followed preventing any further escalation in hostilities.

Indian Prime minister Rajiv Gandhi and self-appointed President General Zia-ul-Haq involved in Cricket diplomacy
to resolve this issue towards a peaceful end. It is also widely quoted that General Zia-ul-Haq, using his military

confidence to his advantage, threatened and intimidated the Indian prime minister in the same cricket diplomacy

T31
during a match by warning him of Pakistani fighter jets loaded with nuclear weapons awaiting orders back home.

[4]

Further reading

• Sunil Dasgupta, 'Operation Brasstacks,' Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, October 1996 (book review; notes
previous coverage of the operation)

External links

• http://www.upiasia.com/Politics/2010/02/24/indias_futile_talks_with_pakistan/3333/

• http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/143245

• http://www.webcitation.org/query?url=http://www.geocities.com/siafdu/sundarji.html&
date=2009-10-26+02:34:27

• http://www.rediff.com/news/1999/aug/05hoon.htm Rediff interview by PN Hoon

• http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/brass-tacks.htm

• http://www-personal.umich.edu/~rtanter/S96PS472_Papers/KHAN.ARIFA.PAKISTAN

• http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-F0RCES/Army/Army-Chiefs/Chiefs-Armyl6.html

• http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fll902/19021240.htm V.P Singh's statement on the operation

[1] "pakistanlinkurl=http://pakistanlink.org/Commentary/2006/March06/03/02.HTM".

[2] "pakistanlinkurl=http://pakistanlink.org/Commentary/2006/March06/03/02.HTM".

[3] "pakistanlinkurl=http://pakistanlink.org/Commentary/2006/March06/03/02.HTM".

[4] "israelnationalnews url=http://www. israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/143245".

Sir Creek

253

Sir Creek

Sir Creek listen is a 96 km (60 mi) strip of water that is disputed between India and Pakistan in the Rann of Kutch
marshlands. The creek, which opens up into the Arabian Sea, divides the Kutch region of the Indian state of Gujarat
with the Sindh province of Pakistan. It is located at approximately 23°58'N 68°48'E. Originally and locally it is
called 'Baan Ganga'. Sir Creek is named after the British representative.

The long-standing dispute hinges in the actual demarcation "from the mouth of Sir Creek to the top of Sir Creek, and
from the top of Sir Creek eastward to a point on the line designated on the Western Terminus". From this point
onwards, the boundary is unambiguously fixed as defined by the Tribunal Award of 1968.

The creek itself is located in the uninhabited marshlands. During the monsoon season between June and September,
the creek floods its banks and envelops the low-lying salty mudflats around it. During the winter season, the area is
home to flamingoes and other migratory birds.

Dispute

The dispute lies in the interpretation of the maritime boundary line between Kutch and Sindh. Before India's
independence, the provincial region was a part of Bombay Presidency of British India. After India's independence in
1947, Sindh became a part of Pakistan while Kutch remained a part of India.

121
Pakistan lays claim to the entire creek as per paras 9 and 10 of the Bombay Government Resolution of 1914 signed

i3i
between the then Government of Sindh and Rao Maharaj, the ruler of the princely state of Kutch.

The resolution, which demarcated the boundaries between the two
territories, included the creek as part of Sindh, thus setting the
boundary as the eastern flank of the creek. The boundary line, known
as the "Green Line", is disputed by India which maintains that it is an
"indicative line", known as a "ribbon line" in technical jargon. India
sticks to its position that the boundary lies mid-channel as depicted in
another map drawn in 1925, and implemented by the installation of
mid-channel pillars back in 1924

PAKISTAN

[4]

ARABIAN SEA

The Green Line is the boundary as claimed by
Pakistan, the red line is the boundary as claimed
by India. The black line is the undisputed section.

India supports its stance by citing the Thalweg Doctrine in

International Law. The law states that river boundaries between two

states may be, if the two states agree, divided by the mid-channel.

Though Pakistan does not dispute the 1925 map, it maintains that the

Doctrine is not applicable in this case as it only applies to bodies of

water that are navigable, which the Sir Creek is not. India rejects the

Pakistani stance by maintaining the fact that the creek is navigable in high tide, and that fishing trawlers use it to go

out to sea. Another point of concern for Pakistan is that Sir Creek has changed its course considerably over the years.

If the boundary line is demarcated according to the Thalweg principle, Pakistan stands to lose a considerable portion

of the territory that was historically part of the province of Sindh. Acceding to India's stance would also result in the

shifting of the land/sea terminus point several kilometres to the detriment of Pakistan, leading in turn to a loss of

several thousand square kilometres of its Exclusive Economic Zone under the United Nations Convention on Law of

the Sea.

In April 1965, a dispute there contributed to the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, when fighting broke out between India
and Pakistan. Later the same year, British Prime Minister Harold Wilson successfully persuaded both countries to
end hostilities and set up a tribunal to resolve the dispute. A verdict was reached in 1968 which saw Pakistan getting
10% of its claim of 9,000 km 2 (3,500 sq. miles).

Sir Creek 254

The disputed region was at the center of international attention in 1999 after Mig-21 fighter planes of the Indian Air
Force shot down a Pakistani Navy Breguet Atlantique surveillance aircraft over the Sir Creek on August 10, 1999,
killing all 16 on board. India claimed that the plane had strayed into its airspace, which was disputed by the Pakistani
navy. (See the Atlantique Incident).

Economic reasons

Though the creek has little military value, it holds immense economic gain. Much of the region is rich in oil and gas
below the sea bed, and control over the creek would have a huge bearing on the energy potential of each nation. Also
once the boundaries are defined, it would help in the determination of the maritime boundaries which are drawn as
an extension of onshore reference points. Maritime boundaries also help in determining the limits of Exclusive
Economic Zones (EEZs) and continental shelves. EEZs extend to 200 nautical miles (370 km) and can be subjected
to commercial exploitation.

The demarcation would also prevent the inadvertent crossing over of fishermen of both nations into each others'
territories.

Dispute resolution

Since 1969, there have been eight rounds of talks between the two nations, without a breakthrough. Steps to resolve
the dispute include:

1 . Allocation

2. Delimitation

3. Demarcation

4. Administration

Since neither side has conceded ground, India has proposed that the maritime boundary could be demarcated first, as

T31
per the provisions of Technical Aspects of Law of Sea (TALOS). However, Pakistan has staunchly refused the

proposal on the grounds that the dispute should be resolved first. Pakistan has also proposed that the two sides go in

for international arbitration, which India has flatly refused. India maintains that all bilateral disputes should be

resolved without the intervention of third-parties.

References

[1] "Kargilisation of Sir Creek" (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2000/20000307/edit.htm#l). The Tribune, Chandigarh. . Retrieved May 21,

2006.
[2] "India-Pakistan talks: Sir Creek" (http://www.indianembassy.org/South_Asia/Pakistan/indpak(sircreek).htm). Embassy of India. .

Retrieved May 21, 2006.
[3] "Dialogue on Sir Creek begins" (http://www.hinduonnet.com/2005/05/29/stories/2005052902300900.htm). The Hindu. . Retrieved May

21, 2006.
[4] "Sir Creek" (http://ipripak.org/factfiles/ffl8.shtml). Islamabad Policy Research Institute. . Retrieved May 21, 2006.
[5] "The disputed Sir Creek" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/416806.stm). BBC News. August 10, 1999. . Retrieved May 21,

2006.

Sir Creek 255

Further reading

• Bharat Bhushan, Tulbul, Sir Creek and Slacken: Competitive Methodologies, South Asian Journal, No. 7 Jan-Mar
2005 accessed at (http://www.southasianmedia.net/Magazine/journal/7_competitive_methodologies.htm)

July 26, 2006

• Indo-Pak composite dialogue: No movement on Sir Creek talks, By Zahid Gishkori, Express Tribune, Published:
May 22, 2011 (http://tribune.com.pk/story/173672/
indo-pak-composite-dialogue-no-movement-on-sir-creek-talks/)

External links

• India, Pakistan in border talks (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/6202399.stm) BBC December 22,
2006

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir

The insurgency in Kashmir has existed in various forms. Thousands of lives have been lost since 1989 due to the
intensification of both the insurgency and the fight against it.

A widespread armed insurgency started in Kashmir with the disputed 1987 election with some elements from the
State's assembly forming militant wings which acted as a catalyst for the emergence of armed insurgency in the

[1][2]

region.

The Inter-Services Intelligence of Pakistan has been accused by India of supporting and training mujahideen. to
fight in Jammu and Kashmir. According to official figures released in Jammu and Kashmir assembly, there were
3,400 disappearance cases and the conflict has left more than 47,000 people dead as of July 2009. However, the
number of insurgency-related deaths in the state have fallen sharply since the start of a slow-moving peace process
between India and Pakistan.

History of the insurgency
1947-1987

After independence from colonial rule India and Pakistan fought a war over the princely state of Kashmir. At the end

ro]

of the war India controlled the most valuable parts of Kashmir. While there were sporadic periods of violence
there was no organized insurgency movement.

During this period legislative elections in Jammu and Kashmir were first held in 1951 and Sheikh Abdullah's party
stood unopposed. However Sheikh Abdullah would fall in and out of favour with the central government and would
often be dismissed only to be re-appointed later on. This was a time of political instability in Jammu and Kashmir
and it went through several periods of President's rule by the Federal Government.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 256

1987-2004

After Sheikh Abdullah's death, his son Farooq Abdullah took over as Chief Minister of Jammu and Kashmir. Farooq
Abdullah eventually fell out of favour with the Central Government and the Prime Minister of India, Indira Gandhi
had him dismissed. A year later Farooq Abdullah announced an alliance with the ruling Congress party for the
elections of 1987. The elections were allegedly rigged in favour of Farooq Abdullah.

ri2i
This led to the rise of an armed insurgency movement composed, in part, of those who unfairly lost elections.

Pakistan supplied these groups with logistical support, arms, recuits and training.

2004-present

Beginning in 2004 Pakistan began to end its support for insurgents in Kashmir. This happened because terrorist

ri4i

groups linked to Kashmir twice tried to assassinate Pakistani President General Pervez Musharraf. His successor,
Asif Ali Zardari has continued the policy, calling insurgents in Kashmir "terrorists". Although it is unclear if
Pakistan's intelligence agency, the Inter-Services Intelligence, thought to be the agency aiding and controlling the
insurgency is following Pakistan's commitment to end support for the insurgency in Kashmir.

Despite the change in the nature of the insurgency from a phenomenon supported by external forces to a primarily
domestic driven movement the Indian government has continued to send large numbers of troops to

the Indian border and to crack down on civil liberties.

n si
There have been widespread protests against Indian rule.

Once the most formidable face of Kashmir militancy, Hizbul Mujahideen is slowly fading away as its remaining

T221
commanders and cadres are being taken out on a regular interval by security forces.

Reasons for the insurgency
Humanitarian abuses

Some analysts have suggested that the number of Indian troops in Jammu and Kashmir is close to 600,000 although

[231
estimates vary and the Indian government refuses to release official figures. These troops have engaged in

widespread humanitarian abuses and have engaged in extrajudicial killings. This has led to support for the

insurgency. However in October 2010, Army Chief Gen VK Singh stated in an interview that over 95% of the

allegations of human rights violations proved to be false and had apparently been levelled with the "ulterior motive

of maligning the armed forces". Giving details, he said 988 allegations against the Army personnel in Jammu and

Kashmir were received since 1994. Out of these 965 cases were investigated and 940 were found false, accounting

for 95.2 percent.

Military forces in Jammu and Kashmir operate under emergency powers granted to them by the central government.
These powers allow the military to curtail civil liberties, creating further support for the insurgency.

The insurgents have also abused human rights, engaging in what some have called an ethnic cleansing. The
government's inability to protect the people from both its own troops and the insurgency has further eroded support
for the government.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 257

ISI's role

The Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence has allegedly encouraged and aided the Kashmir independence movement
through an insurgency due to its dispute on the legitimacy of Indian rule in Kashmir, with the

ro]

insurgency as an easy way to keep Indian troops distracted and cause international condemnation of India.

Political rights

The insurgency was sparked by the rigging of state elections in 1987. This has contributed to anti-government

sentiment.

A government report found that almost half of all Kashmiri Panchayat Raj positions were vacant and suggested that

the reason for this was the destabilizing effect of the conflict. The Panchayat Raj is a system of elected village level

governance created by the 73rd amendment to the Indian constitution. The report also noted that their ability to

[291
effectively govern was "crippled."

There have been some signs in recent times that the Indian government has begun to take Kashmiri political views
more seriously, especially those expressed through elections. During the Jammu and Kashmir state assembly
elections, 2008 the national ruling party chose to form a coalition with the party that won the most votes in order to
"honour the mandate" of the election even though it was contrary to their immediate interests.

Mujahideen influence

After the invasion of Afghanistan by the Soviet Union, Mujahideen fighters, with the aid of Pakistan, slowly
infiltrated Kashmir with the goal of spreading a radical Islamist ideology.

Religion

Jammu and Kashmir is the only Muslim majority state in Hindu-majority India. Indian-American journalist Asra
Nomani states that while India itself is a secular state, Muslims are politically, culturally and economically
marginalized when compared to Hindus in India as a whole. The Government's decision to transfer 99 acres of
forest land to a Hindu organization solidified this feeling and led to one of the largest protest rallies in Jammu and
Kashmir.

Other reasons

The Indian National Census shows that Kashmir lags behind other states in most socio-development indicators such

T331
as literacy rates and has unusually high levels of unemployment. This contributes to anti-government sentiment.

Kunanposhspora mass rape

[34]

Kunan Poshpora Rape incident The Kunan Poshpora mass rape occurred on February 23, 1991, when units of the
Indian army launched a search and interrogation operation in the village of Kunan Poshpora, located in Kashmir's
remote Kupwara District. At least 53 women were allegedly gang raped by soldiers that night . However, Human
Rights organizations including Human Rights Watch have reported that the number of raped women could be as high
as 100 .February 23, 1991, at least 23 and perhaps as many as 100 women were reported to have been

raped in the village of Kunan Poshpora by soldiers of the Fourth Raj Rifles, who were posted in Kupwara. Although
the Indian government's investigations into the incident rejected the allegations as "baseless," international human
rights organizations have expressed serious doubts about the integrity of these investigations and the manner in
which they were conducted, stating that the Indian government launched a "campaign to acquit the army of charges
of human rights violations and discredit those who brought the charges

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 258

According to reports, on February 23, 1991 at approximately 11:00PM soldiers from the 4th Rajputana Rifles
cordoned off the village of Kunan Poshpora to conduct a search operation. The men were taken from their homes
and assembled in an open field for interrogation overnight. Once the men had been taken away, soldiers allegedly
gang raped a large number of village women overnight till 9:00 AM the next day. Local villagers alleged that up to
100 women "were gang-raped without any consideration of their age, married, unmarried, pregnancy etc., The
victims ranged in age from 13 to 80. [9] The village headman and other leaders have claimed that they reported the
rapes to army officials on February 27, but the officials denied the charges and refused to take any further action.
However, army officials claim that no report was ever made. On March 5, villagers complained to Kupwara district
magistrate S.M. Yasin, who visited the village on March 7 to investigate. In his final report, he stated that the
soldiers "behaved like wild beasts" [8] and described the attack as follows:

A large number of armed personnel entered into the houses of villagers and at gunpoint they gang-raped
23 ladies, without any consideration of their age, married, unmarried, pregnancy etc... there was a hue
and cry in the whole village.

He went on to state: I found the villagers were harassed to the extreme possible extent. In the morning after 9 a.m.
when the Army left, the village men folk were released and when they entered their houses, they were shocked to see
that the Army forces have gang raped their daughters, wives, sisters, etc. The armed forces have forcibly taken No
Objection Certificate from the locals as well as from the local police after doing the illegal action... I feel ashamed
to put in black and white what kind of atrocities and their magnitude was brought to my notice on the spot.

On March 18, divisional commissioner Wajahat Habibullah visited the village, and filed a confidential report, parts
of which were later released to the public. He concluded: "While the veracity of the complaint is highly doubtful, it
still needs to be determined why such complaint was made at all. The people of the village are simple folk and by the
Army's own admission have been generally helpful and even careful of security of the Army's officers... Unlike

Brig. Sharma I found many of the village women genuinely angry ... It is recommended that the level of

T421
investigation be upgraded to that of a gazetted police officer.

In response to criticism of the government's handling of the investigation, the army requested the Press Council of
India to investigate the incident. The investigative team visited Kunan Poshpora in June, more than three months
after the alleged attacks. Upon interviewing a number of the alleged victims, the team claimed that contradictions in
their testimony rendered their allegations of rape "baseless. The Press Council's dismissal of all the Kunan Poshpora
allegation, and the manner in which it carried out its investigation were widely criticized. Human Rights Watch
wrote:

While the results of the examinations by themselves could not prove the charges of rape, they raised serious
questions about the army's actions in Kunan Poshpora. Under the circumstances, the committee's eagerness to
dismiss any evidence that might contradict the government's version of events is deeply disturbing. In the end, the

committee has revealed itself to be far more concerned about countering domestic and international criticism than

T431
about uncovering the truth

The United States Department of State, in its 1992 report on international human rights, rejected the Indian

government's conclusion, and determined that there was "was credible evidence to support charges that an elite army

T441
unit engaged in mass rape in the Kashmiri village of Kunan Poshpora.

Following the release of the Press Council's report, Indian authorities dismissed all of the allegations of mass rape as
groundless. No further investigations were conducted.

In 1994, a Women's Initiative report featured the testimony of several of the alleged victims. Many complained of
social ostracism from their families and communities because of the "shame" of having been raped. Some of the
alleged victims reportedly committed suicide after the incident. According to the report, not a single marriage
proposal had been received for any women, raped or not, in the village for three years after the incident.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 259

Tactics
India

Over time the Indian government has increasingly relied on military presence and a curtailment of civil liberties to
achieve its aims in Kashmir. The military has committed massive human rights violations.

For most of the history of the insurgency the government paid little attention to the political views of the Kashmiri
people. The government would often dissolve assemblies, arrest elected politicians and impose President's rule. The
government also rigged elections in 1987. In recent times there have been signs that the government is taking
local elections more seriously.

The government has also funnelled development aid to Kashmir and Kashmir has now become the biggest per capita
receiver of Federal aid.

Pakistan

The Pakistani central government originally supported, trained and armed the insurgency in Kashmir, however after
groups linked to the Kashmiri insurgency twice attempted to assassinate President Pervez Musharraf, Musharraf

ri4i

decided to end support for such groups. His successor, Asif Ali Zardari has continued the policy, calling
insurgents in Kashmir "terrorists".

But the Pakistani Inter-Services Intelligence hasn't followed the lead of the government and has continued its support
for insurgent groups in Kashmir although Pakistani support for the insurgency has certainly waned.

Insurgents

Since around 2000 the 'insurgency' has become far less violent and has instead taken on the form of protests and

T321
marches. Certain groups have also chosen to lay down their arms and look for a peaceful resolution to the

conflict.

Groups

The different insurgent groups have different aims in Kashmir. Some want complete independence from both India
and Pakistan, others want unification with Pakistan and still others just want greater autonomy from the Indian
government.

A 2010 survey found that 43% in J&K would favour independence, with support for the independence movement

[49]
unevenly distributed across the region.

Identity

Over the last two years, the militant group, Lashkar-e-Toiba has split into two factions: Al Mansurin and Al Nasirin.
Another new group reported to have emerged is the Save Kashmir Movement. Harkat-ul-Mujahideen (formerly
known as Harkat-ul-Ansar) and Lashkar-e-Toiba are believed to be operating from Muzaffarabad, Azad Kashmir and
Muridke, Pakistan respectively.

Other less well known groups are the Freedom Force and Farzandan-e-Milat. A smaller group, Al-Badr, has been
active in Kashmir for many years and is still believed to be functioning. All Parties Hurriyat Conference, an
organization that uses moderate means to press for the rights of the Kashmiris, is often considered as the mediator
between New Delhi and insurgent groups.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 260

Al-Qaeda

It is unclear if Al Qaeda has a presence in Jammu and Kashmir. Donald Rumsfield suggested that they were

active [50] and in 2002 the SAS hunted for Os

1521
established a base in Jammu and Kashmir

active and in 2002 the SAS hunted for Osama bin Laden in Jammu and Kashmir. Al Qaeda claims that it has

However there has been no evidence for any of these assertions. The Indian army also claims that there is

[531
no evidence of Al Qaeda presence in Jammu and Kashmir.

Al Qaeda has established bases in Pakistani administered Kashmir and some, including Robert Gates have suggested
that they have helped to plan attacks in India.

References

[I] "Kashmir insurgency" (http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm). BBC
(London: BBC). . Retrieved November 1, 2010.

[2] Hussain, Altaf (14 September 2002). "Kashmir's flawed elections" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/2223364.stm). BBC (London:

BBC). . Retrieved November 1, 2010.
[3] Pakistan's shadowy secret service - BBC News (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/6033383.stm)
[4] Nato's top brass accuse Pakistan over Taliban aid - Telegraph (http://www. telegraph. co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2006/ 10/06/

wafghan06.xml)
[5] At Border, Signs of Pakistani Role in Taliban Surge - New York Times (http://www.nytimes.com/2007/01/21/world/asia/21quetta.

html)
[6] A NATION CHALLENGED: THE SUSPECTS; Death of Reporter Puts Focus On Pakistan Intelligence Unit - New York Times (http://

query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE7D81F3EF936A15751C0A9649C8B63)
[7] Indian officials say 3,400 missing in held Kashmir (August 18, 2009; AFP) (http://archives.dawn.com/archives/100977)
[8] Bose, Sumantm.Kashmir: Roots of Conflict, Paths to Peace. Harvard, 2005.
[9] Swami, Praveen./nt/ia, Pakistan and the Secret Jihad. 2006.
[10] Altaf, Hussein. (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/2223364.stm) "Kashmir's Flawed Elections"

[II] BBC News, (http://news.bbc.co.uk/hi/english/static/in_depth/south_asia/2002/india_pakistan/timeline/1989.stm) "Kashmir
Insurgency"

[12] Jamar, Ani.The untold story of Jihad in Kashmir. 2009.

[13] Hasan, Syed Shoaib. (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/4416771.stm) "Why Pakistan is boosting Kashmir militants"

[14] Khan, Aamer Ahmed. (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/4415823.stm) "Pakistan: Where have the militants gone?"

[15] Stephens, Bret. (http://online.wsj.com/article/SB122307507392703831.html) "The most difficult job in the world"

[16] Cole, Juan, (http://www.salon.com/news/opinion/feature/2008/12/12/pakistan/index.html) "Does Obama understand his biggest

foreign-policy challenge?"
[17] Rediff. (http://www.rediff.eom/news/2002/jun/l lwar4.htm) "Links between ISI, militant groups: Straw"
[18] The Economist. Stony Ground. July 2010.
[19] The Economist. Your Place or Mine?. February 2004.
[20] The Economist. Grim Up North. June 2009.

[21] BBC News. (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/6367917.stm) "Kashmir's extra-judicial killings"
[22] "Hizbul Mujahideen almost wiped out in Kashmir" (http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/

Hizbul-Mujahideen-Kashmir-militancys-dominant-face-on-death-bed/articleshow/10408682.cms). The Times Of India. 19 October 2011. .
[23] Nathan, Joanna, (http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article392432.ece) "India's leader makes peace overtures in Kashmir"
[24] "95% HR violation cases against Army in J&K false" (http://www.zeenews.com/news663426.html). zeenews. .
[25] Jim Yardley. India Reopens Kashmir's Schools, but Many Stay Away . The New York Times, 27th September 2010.
[26] Pallone, Frank, (http://www.house.gov/list/press/nj06_pallone/pr_febl5_kashmir.html) "Resolution condemning Human Rights

Violations against Kashmiri Pandits"
[27] Human Rights Watch. Rights Abuses Behind Kashmir Fighting July 1999.

[28] GlobalSecurity.org. (http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/pakistan/isi.htm) "Directorate for Inter-Services Intelligence [ISI]"
[29] Planning Commission of India Jammu & Kashmir Development Report 2003.
[30] Ramaseshan, Radhika. (http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081230/jsp/nation/story_10319531.jsp) "Cong dilemma: young Omar or

PDP" The Telegraph
[31] Nomani, Asra Q. (http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-nomanil-2008dec01, 0,4752. story) "Muslims -- India's

new 'untouchables'" Los Angeles Times
[32] Thottam, Jyoti (http://www.time.eom/time/magazine/article/0, 9171, 1838586, OO.html) "Valley of Tears" Time Magazine, September

2008
[33] Government of India Indian National Census 2001 2001.

Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir 261

[34] Greater, Kashmir. "Kunanposhspora mass rape echoes in LA" (http://greaterkashmir.com/news/2012/Mar/15/

kunanposhspora-mass-rape-echoes-in-la-81.asp) (in Independent MLA Engineer Abdul Rasheed and National Conference MLA, Mir

Saifullah on Wednesday exchanged heated words in the Legislative Assembly (LA) during Question Hour. As the proceedings of Question

Hour began Er Rasheed tried to draw the attention of the house towards State Human Right Commission (SHRC) report regarding

Kunanposhpora mass rape episode.). Jammu, J&K. . Retrieved 15 March 2012.
[35] Lost Rebellion: Kashmir In The 1990s (http://www.flipkart.com/lost-rebellion-014027846x/p/itmczyr6gzynakr4?pid=9780140278460).

Penguin Books.. (1999).. .
[36] Mattu, Abdul Majid (2002). Kashmir issue: a historical perspective (http://books.google.co. in/books ?id=AjxuAAAAMAAJ&q=&

redir_esc=y). srinagar: Ali Mohammad & Sons. pp. 169. .
[37] Indo-US shadow over Punjab (http://books.google.co. in/books?id=MWluAAAAMAAJ&q=&redir_esc=y). International Human Rights

Organisation. 1992. pp. 311. .
[38] Goldston, James. Kashmir under siege: human rights in India (http://books. google. co.in/books?id=jrGwSsSchRUC&pg=PA88&

lpg=PA88&dq=&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q&f=false). Asia Watch Committee (U.S.), Patricia Gossman, Human Rights Watch

(Organization). .
[39] Abdication of responsibility: the Commonwealth and human rights (http://books. google. co.in/books?hl=en&id=_QTz5PCDvjEC&

dq=ABDICATION+OF+RESPONSIBILITY&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=NdSFn3CHgd&

sig=jtwpmYG0dxWzr-M6uARUgh99aJY&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=ABDICATIONOF

RESPONSIBILITY&f=false). google books: By Human Rights Watch (Organization). .
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Human Rights Watch, Human Rights Watch World Report 1992 - India, 1 January 1992,. .
[41] CROSSETTE,, BARBARA (April 07, 1991). "India Moves Against Kashmir Rebels" (http://www.nytimes.com/1991/04/07/world/

india-moves-against-kashmir-rebels.html). The New York Times. .
[42] NOORANI, A.G.. Why Kashmir erupts (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2515/stories/20080801251508400.htm). .
[43] Abdication of responsibility:: the Commonwealth and human rights (http://books. google. co.in/books?hl=en&id=_QTz5PCDvjEC&

dq=ABDICATION+OF+RESPONSIBILITY&printsec=frontcover&source=web&ots=NdSFn3CHgd&

sig=jtwpmYG0dxWzr-M6uARUgh99aJY&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&redir_esc=y#v=onepage&q=ABDICATIONOF

RESPONSIBILITY&f=false). By Human Rights Watch (Organization). .
[44] CROSSETTE, BARBARA (feb,01,1992). "State Department Cites China and Other Nations for Human-Rights Abuses" (http://www.

nytimes.com/1992/02/01/world/state-department-cites-china-and-other-nations-for-human-rights-abuses.html). http://www.nytimes.

com. .
[45] Human Rights Watch, Patricia Gossman. "India's secret army in Kashmir : new patterns of abuse emerge in the conflict ", 1996
[46] Sanghvi, Vir (http://www.hindustantimes.com/Think-the-Unthinkable/Articlel-331689.aspx) "Think the unthinkable" Hindustan Times,

August 2008
[47] Gupta, Amit; Leather, Kaia. (http://docs. google. com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:lnhk5esbgrkJ:fpc. state.gov/documents/organization/

13390. pdf+kashmir+insurgents+lay+down+arms&hl=de&gl=de&pid=bl&

srcid=ADGEEShAKwH9pVW16YC2-dyX6RP_KYtdoG3X7iDlGKwTxaO0O114JdLMf_wKYEJVQ_LinyIgx2I0TWSQAxl2oc8OSyUWAIBHSyTHuVs8XTVl

sig=AHIEtbQWdbVbaShVvuAURLFsmBS-IR4gog) "Kashmir: Recent Developments and US Concerns", June 2002
[48] BBC News (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/shared/spl/hi/south_asia/03/kashmir_future/html/) "The Future of Kashmir?"
[49] Bradnock, Robert "Kashmir: Paths to Peace" Chatham House, London, 2008
[50] Abbas, Zaffar. (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/2043800.stm) "Analysis: Is al-Qaeda in Kashmir?"
[51] Smith, Michael. (http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/1385795/SAS-joins-Kashmir-hunt-for-bin-Laden.html)

"SAS joins Kashmir hunt for bin Laden" The Telegraph 2002
[52] International Herald Tribune, (http://www.iht.com/articles/2006/07/13/news/india.php) "Al Qaeda Claim of Kashmiri Link Worries

India"
[53] The Hindu, (http://www.hindu.com/2007/06/18/stories/2007061801 191400.htm) "No Al Qaeda presence in Kashmir: Army"
[54] Dawn, (http://news.dawn.com/wps/wcm/connect/dawn-content-library/dawn/news/world/

03-al-qaeda-could-provoke-new-india-pakistan-war-gates-ss-02) "Al Qaeda could provoke new India-Pakistan war: Gates", January 2010
[55] Smucker, Phillip, (http://www.csmonitor.com/2002/0702/p01s02-wosc.html) "Al Qaeda thriving in Pakistani Kashmir"

'The template .Iuiiiiiui and Kutlwiir fn'i:dom tiicrc/iic/tt is being eonsitletetl lot deletion.'

20012002 IndiaPakistan standoff 262

2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff

The 2001—2002 India— Pakistan standoff was a military standoff between India and Pakistan that resulted in the
massing of troops on either side of the International Border (IB) and along the Line of Control (LoC) in the region of
Kashmir. This was the second major military standoff between India and Pakistan following the successful
detonation of nuclear devices by both countries in 1998 and the most recent standoff between the nuclear rivals. The
other had been the Kargil War.

The military build up was initiated by India responding to a terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament on December
13, 2001 during which twelve people, including the five men who attacked the building, were killed. India claimed
that the attacks were carried out by two Pakistan based Terrorist groups fighting Indian rule in Kashmir,
Lashkar-e-Taiba (LeT) and Jaish-e-Mohammad (JeM), both of whom India has said are backed by Pakistan's Inter
Services Intelligence (ISI) agency, a charge Pakistan denied. In the Western media, coverage of the standoff

focused on the possibility of a nuclear war between the two countries and the implications of the potential conflict on
the United States-led War on Terrorism. Tensions de-escalated following international diplomatic mediation which
resulted in the October 2002 withdrawal of Indian and Pakistani troops from the International Border.

Parliament attack

On the morning of December 13, 2001, a group of five armed men attacked the Indian Parliament by breaching the
security cordon at Gate 12. The five men killed seven people before being shot dead by the Parliament security.

World leaders and leaders in India's immediate neighbourhood condemned the attack on the Parliament, including
Pakistan. On December 14, the ruling National Democratic Alliance (NDA) blamed Pakistan-based Lashkar-e-Taiba
and Jaish-e-Mohammed for the attack. Home Minister LK Advani claimed, "we have received some clues about
yesterday's incident, which shows that a neighbouring country, and some terrorist organisations active there behind

r*7]

it, in an indirect reference to Pakistan and Pakistan-based militant groups. The same day, in a demarche to
Pakistani High Commissioner to India Ashraf Jehangir Qazi, India demanded that Pakistan stop the activities of LeT
and JeM, that Pakistan apprehend the organisation's leaders and that Pakistan curb the financial assets and the

ro]

group's access to these assets. In response to the Indian government's statements, Pakistani forces were put on high
alert the same day. Pakistan military spokesman Major-General Rashid Qureshi claimed that the Parliament attack
was a "drama staged by Indian intelligence agencies to defame the freedom struggle in 'occupied Kashmir'" and
further warned that India would pay "heavily if they engage in any misadventure". On December 20, amid calls
from the United States and the United Nations (UN) to exercise restraint, India mobilised and deployed its troops to
Kashmir and the Indian part of the Punjab in what was India's largest military mobilization since the 1971
Indo-Pakistani War. The mobilization was known as Operation Parakram (Sanskrit: Valor).

20012002 IndiaPakistan standoff 263

Confrontations
December- January

In late December, both countries moved ballistic missiles closer to each other's border, and mortar and artillery fire
was reported in Kashmir. By January 2002, India had mobilized around 500,000 troops and three armored

divisions on the Pakistani border concentrated along the Line of Control in Kashmir. Pakistan responded similarly,

ri7i
deploying around 300,000 troops to that region. This was the largest buildup on the subcontinent since the 1971

war.

On January 12, 2002, Pakistani President Pervez Musharraf gave a speech intended to reduce tensions with India. He

ri2i
declared that Pakistan would combat extremism on its own soil, but said that Pakistan had a right to Kashmir.

Indian leaders reacted with skepticism. Minister of State for External Affairs Omar Abdullah, a Kashmiri himself

ri3i
said that the speech was nothing new, and others said that it would 'not make any change in the Indian stand'.

ri4i

Still, tensions eased somewhat. The Indian President told his generals that there would be no attack "for now."

May-June

However, tensions escalated dramatically in May. On May 14, three gunmen killed 34 people in an army camp near
Jammu, most of them the wives and children of Hindu and Sikh soldiers serving in Kashmir. The Army was angered
by the attack and pressed Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee and his cabinet for permission to attack Pakistani military
targets. On May 18, India expelled Pakistan s ambassador. That same day, thousands of villagers fled Pakistani
artillery fire in Jammu. On May 2, clashes killed 6 Pakistani soldiers and 1 Indian soldier, as well as civilians
from both sides. On May 22, Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee warned his troops to prepare for a "decisive battle."

Beginning on May 24 and lasting for several days, Pakistan carried out a series of missile tests. On June 7, an Indian

ri7i
UAV was shot down inside Pakistan near the city of Lahore.

At the same time, attempts to defuse the situation continued. Alarmed at the possibility of nuclear war, the US

ri Q]

ordered all non-essential citizens to leave India on May 31. Both Vajpayee and Musharraf blamed each other for
the standoff, and a visit by Russian President Vladimir Putin could not mediate a solution. But by mid-June, the
Indian government accepted Musharraf s pledge to end militant infiltration into India, and on June 10, air restrictions

j ri9i

over India were ended and Indian warships removed from Pakistan s coast.

While tensions remained high throughout the next few months, both governments began easing the situation in
Kashmir. By October 2002, India and Pakistan had begun to demobilize their troops along their border, and in 2003
a cease-fire between the two nations was signed. No threat of conflict on such a grand scale has occurred again since
2002.

Cost of standoff

The Indian cost for the buildup was ^ 21600 crore (US$4.31 billion), while the Pakistani cost was estimated to be
$1.4 billion. Also it took India months to mobilize and lost 789 men in the process. Around 100 soldiers were killed
in the initial phase of laying mines, another 250 were injured. The remaining casualties were a result of artillery
duels with Pakistan and vehicle accidents.

Threat of nuclear war

As both India and Pakistan are armed with nuclear weapons, the possibility a conventional war could escalate into a
nuclear one were raised several times during the standoff. Various statements on this subject were made by Indian
and Pakistani officials during the conflict, mainly concerning a no first use policy. Indian Foreign Affairs Minister

Jaswant Singh said on June 5 that India would not use nuclear weapons first, while Musharraf said on June 5 he

T221
would not renounce Pakistan's right to use nuclear weapons first. The possession of nuclear weapons by both

20012002 IndiaPakistan standoff 264

[231
parties proved a decisive factor in preventing all out war. A Defense Intelligence Agency report in May 2002

estimated that a nuclear war between India and Pakistan could, in a worst-case scenario, lead to 8—12 million deaths

n si
initially and millions more later from radiation poisoning.

There was also concern that a June 6, 2002 asteroid explosion over Earth, known as the Eastern Mediterranean

T241
Event, could have caused a nuclear conflict had it exploded over India or Pakistan.

References

[I] "Who will strike first" (http://www. economist.com/printedition/displayStory. cfm?Story_ID=917228), The Economist, December 20,
2001.

[2] Jamal Afridi (July 9, 2009). "Kashmir Militant Extremists" (http://www.cfr.org/kashmir/kashmir-militant-extremists/p9135). Council

Foreign Relations. . Retrieved 4 February 2012. "Pakistan denies any ongoing collaboration between the ISI and militants, stressing a change

of course after September 11, 2001."
[3] Perlez, Jane (2008-11-29). "Pakistan Denies Any Role in Mumbai Attacks" (http://www.nytimes.com/2008/ll/30/world/asia/30pstan.

html). Mumbai (India);Pakistan: NYTimes.com. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[4] "Attack on Indian parliament heightens danger of Indo-Pakistan war" (http://www.wsws.org/articles/2001/dec2001/ind-d20.shtml).

Wsws.org. 2001-12-20. . Retrieved 2012-01-31.
[5] "India to withdraw troops from Pak border" (http://wwwl.timesofindia.indiatimes. com/cms. dll/articleshow?artid=25384627), Times of

India, October 16, 2002.
[6] "Pakistan to withdraw front-line troops" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/world/south_asia/2335599.stm), BBC, October 17, 2002.
[7] "Parliament attack: Advani points towards neighbouring country" (http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/dec/14parl21.htm), Rediff,

December 14, 2001.
[8] "Govt blames LeT for Parliament attack, asks Pak to restrain terrorist outfits" (http://www.rediff.com/news/2001/dec/14parll2.htm),

Rediff, December 14, 2001.
[9] "Pakistan forces put on high alert: Storming of parliament" (http://www.dawn.com/2001/12/15/topl.htm), Dawn (newspaper),

December 15, 2001.
[10] "Gen. Padmanabhan mulls over lessons of Operation Parakram" (http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/06/stories/2004020604461200.htm).

The Hindu (Chennai, India). February 6, 2004. Archived (http://web.archive.Org/web/20081203233122/http://www.hindu.com/2004/

02/06/stories/2004020604461200.htm) from the original on 3 December 2008. . Retrieved 4 December 2008.

[II] Pakistan, India 'move missiles' to border (http://archives.cnn.com/2001/WORLD/asiapcf/south/12/25/india.pakistan.kashmir.
missiles) CNN, December 26, 2001.

[12] Musharraf declares war on extremism (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/1756965.stm), BBC, January 12, 2002.

[13] "Musharraf s speech greeted with skepticism in India" (http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/may/27war2.htm), Rediff, May 27, 2002.

[14] "The Stand-off" (http://www.newyorker.com/archive/2006/02/13/060213fa_fact_coll), The New Yorker, February 13, 2006.

[15] "India expels Pakistan's ambassador" (http://www.cbc.ca/world/story/2002/05/18/india_pak020518.html), CBC.ca, May 18, 2002.

[16] "Six more Pak soldiers killed" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2002/20020522/mainl.htm), The Tribune, May 21, 2002.

[17] "IAF's Searcher-II Loss on June 07, 2002" (http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/other-Parakram-IAF-UAV-Wreckage.html).

Vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com. . Retrieved 2012-03-01.
[18] "Disarmament Diplomacy: News Review — India and Pakistan Camped on Brink of War over Kashmir" (http://www.acronym.org.uk/dd/

dd65/65nr01.htm). Acronym.org.uk. . Retrieved 2012-03-01.
[19] India-Pakistan Conflict (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak.htm), globalsecurity.org
[20] Aditi Phadnis (January 16, 2003). "Parakram cost put at Rs 6,500 crore" (http://www.rediff.com/money/2003/jan/16defence.htm).

Redijf.com India Limited. Archived (http://web.archive.Org/web/20030203133106/http://www.rediff.com/money/2003/jan/

16defence.htm) from the original on 2003-02-03. . Retrieved 2012-03-20.
[21] "India will not use nuclear weapons first: Singh" (http://web.archive.org/web/2008120519421 l/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/

mi_m0WDQ/is_2002_June_3/ai_86623659). BNET. June 3, 2002. Archived from the original (http://www.findarticles.eom/p/articles/

mi_m0WDQ/is_2002_June_3/ai_86623659) on 2008-12-05. . Retrieved 2012-03-20.
[22] Irish Examiner — 2002/06/05: "Musharraf refuses to renounce first use of nuclear weapons" (http://archives.tcm.ie/irishexaminer/2002/

06/05/story 29703. asp), Irish Examiner, June 5, 2002
[23] "IPRI :: Islamabad Policy Research Institute" (http://ipripak.org/papers/india-pakistan.shtml). Ipripak.org. . Retrieved 2012-01-13.
[24] "Near-Earth Objects Pose Threat, General Says" (http://www.spacedaily.com/news/deepimpact-02s.html). Spacedaily.com. . Retrieved

2012-03-01.

20012002 IndiaPakistan standoff

265

External links

• Gen. Padmanabhan mulls over lessons of Operation Parakram (http://www.hindu.com/2004/02/06/stories/
2004020604461200.htm)

• Thoughts on Operation Parakram (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE5-5/Sunils.html)

• Operation Parakram (http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-07-31/india/
2720424 3_l_op-parakram-indian-soldiers-operation-parakr am)

• Nuclear Proliferation in India and Pakistain (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/10822/552636)
from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives (http://repository.library.georgetown.edu/handle/
10822/552494)

India-Pakistan maritime trespassing

India-Pakistan maritime trespassing refers to the
frequent trespassing and violation of respective national
territorial waters of India and Pakistan in peacetime.
Most trespassing is common to Pakistani and Indian
fishermen operating along the coastline of the Indian
state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sindh.
Most violations occur due to the absence of a physical
boundary and lack of navigational tools for small
fishermen. Hundreds of fishermen are arrested by the
Coast Guards of both nations, but obtaining their
release is difficult and long-winded owing to the hostile
relations between the two nations.

Patrolling and arrests

PAKISTAN

The Sir Creek area. The Green Line is the boundary as claimed by

Pakistan, the red line is the boundary as claimed by India. The black

line is the undisputed section.

The long-standing territorial disputes and military

conflicts between India and Pakistan have led to

vigilant and strict patrolling of territorial waters in the

Arabian Sea and the coastline shared along the Indian state of Gujarat and the Pakistani province of Sind by the

Maritime Security Agency of Pakistan and the Indian Coast Guard. The absence of a physical boundary and lack of

proper demarcation leaves small fishing boats and trawlers susceptible to illegally crossing territorial waters. The

problem is aggravated by the dispute over the Sir Creek in Kutch and the failure to officially determine the maritime

121
boundary between the two nations. Most local fishermen possess no navigational tools and are unable or incapable

of determine their location by longitudes or latitudes

[3][1]

Obtaining release

For most of the time, the situation of imprisoned fishermen remained unknown to their home countries and people.
Coastal villages often report the disappearance of fishing boats and fishermen from their village but their

whereabouts remain unclear for many years. Indian authorities estimate that more than 100 fishing boats and

131
admit that they often cannot ascertain how many fishermen had strayed. Most fishermen who are arrested are

121

denied basic legal rights and given treatment usually accorded to prisoners of war. Some NGOs and human rights
organisations have worked to petition both governments and represent the families of imprisoned fishermen, but with

limited success

[2]

IndiaPakistan maritime trespassing 266

During periods of improvement in bilateral relations, the governments of both nations have taken steps to release
imprisoned fishermen as a confidence-building measure and gestures of peace and goodwill. Both nations have also
recently established a joint judicial committee, composing of four retired judges from either nation to resolve the
disputes and obtain the release of imprisoned fishermen. The committee has enabled the exchanging of lists of

fishermen and other civilian prisoners being held in jails of India and Pakistan and providing consular access to those

141
still imprisoned. In 2006, Pakistan released more than 400 Indian fishermen (including 30 children) and India

reciprocated by releasing 130 Pakistani fishermen, but claimed that as many as 350 fishermen were still languishing

T31
in Pakistani jails. However, there remains much distrust and inertia in processes to obtain the release of fishermen,

and both governments have exchanged accusations of the lack of legal rights and access for their citizens and the

absence of cooperation on ascertaining rival claims on the number of fishermen imprisoned and obtaining their

release.

Preventive measures

The Indian government has undertaken a census of fishermen in western Gujarat, preparing a database of

information on fishermen and their boats to be used for more effective monitoring of fishing activities in Indian

131
territorial waters alongside Pakistan and to prevent boats from straying into Pakistani waters. The Indian Coast

Guard has also begun installing tracking devices in fishing boats operating in the waters off western Gujarat to

131
maintain surveillance and to stop them from staying into Pakistani waters. Developed by the Indian Space

Research Organisation, the tracking device has the ability to send out alerts for fires on board, a sinking vessel, a

131
medical emergency and when the boat is apprehended by another country.

References

[1] India tracks stray fishing boats (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/2/hi/south_asia/7336686.stm)

[2] Plight of ants (http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/aug/07nad.htm)

[3] India to stop fishermen from straying into Pakistan (http://in.reuters.com/article/topNews/idINIndia-32896020080407)

[4] India, Pakistan exchange lists of prisoners (http://www.indianexpress.com/story/291265.html)

267

Incidents

Atlantique Incident

The Atlantique Incident was an event in which a Pakistan Navy's Naval Air Arm Breguet Atlantique patrol plane,
carrying 16 people on board, was shot down by the Indian Air Force for alleged violation of airspace. The episode
took place in the Rann of Kutch on August 10, 1999, just a month after the Kargil War, creating a tense atmosphere
between India and Pakistan.

Foreign diplomats noted that the plane fell inside Pakistani territory, although it may have crossed the border.
However, they also believe that India's reaction was unjustified. Pakistan later lodged a compensation claim at the
International Court of Justice, accusing India for the incident, but the court dismissed the case, ruling that the court
had no jurisdiction in this matter.

Confrontation

The French-built naval plane Breguet Atlantique (Breguet Br. 1150 Atlantique) plane, flight Atlantic-91, c/n 33, of
29 Squadron was one of Pakistan Navy's frontline aircraft, used primarily for patrol and reconnaissance.
Atlantic-91 left Mehran (Sindh province) Naval Base in Pakistan at 9:15 a.m. (PST). An Indian Air Force ground
radar picked up the flight path of the plane approaching the International Border. Two IAF MiG-21 interceptor
aircraft of No.45 Squadron, from the Indian airbase at Naliya in the Kutch region, were soon scrambled by the Indian
Air Force. After a series of maneuvers — and a conflicting version of events from both sides — the two jets were
given clearance to shoot down the Pakistani plane. At 11:17 a.m. 1ST (10:47 a.m. PST), nearly two hours after
takeoff from Pakistan, the Atlantique was intercepted and an infrared homing R-60 air-to-air missile was fired at it

ro]

by Squadron Leader P.K. Bundela, hitting the engine on the port side of the plane. This resulted in the aircraft
losing control and spiraling towards a crash at approximately 1100 hours PST and approximate location 23°54'N
68°16'E, killing all 16 on board the Atlantic-91, including five officers of the Pakistan Navy.

The incident was the Pakistan Navy's only loss of an aircraft to hostile fire in its history, and the biggest
combat-related casualty for the navy since the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Atlantique Incident

268

Claims and counterclaims

The event immediately sparked claims and counter-claims
by both nations. Pakistan claimed that the plane was
unarmed and the debris was found on Pakistan's side of the
border, and there was no violation of Indian airspace.
According to the official Pakistan version of events, the
plane was on routine training mission inside Pakistan air
space. The Pakistani Prime Minister stated during the
funeral service of the airmen that the shooting was a
barbaric act

[11]

The region in Kutch, (marked in red) where the incident took
place

The Indian Air force, however, claimed that the airplane did

not respond to international protocol and that the plane

11211131
acted in a "hostile" manner, adding that the debris of

a downed aircraft could fall over a wide radius. Indian

sources also state that the Pakistani Information Minister,

Mushahid Hussein, was initially quoted saying that the

ri4i

aircraft was on a surveillance mission. India also accused

that the plane violated a bilateral agreement signed between

India and Pakistan in 1991. The treaty states that no military

aircraft is supposed to come anywhere near 10 km from the

border (although Pakistan claimed the Atlantique wasn't

a combat aircraft). Indian experts also questioned why a

training mission was being done so close to international

borders, since all air forces clearly demarcate training areas

for flight, which are located well away from the borders.

According to them, the Pakistani claim was untenable since

the primary role of the Atlantique is for operations over the sea and that to carry out a training flight over land deep

inside foreign territory was an indication of its use in a surveillance role. India displayed part of the wreckage of

the Pakistani naval aircraft at New Delhi airport the next day. Pakistan however, stated that the wreckage was

removed from its side of the border by Indian helicopters

PAKISTAN

"W "

L j

4^

Sindh

C
—I

c
//£

International Border

Kutch

INDIA

Wr'

ARABIAN SEA

â–  <

\

Enlarged map of the region showing Sir Creek and Kori Creek
area where the plane was shot down and wreckage was found

[9]

While Pakistan said that the plane was unarmed and the debris was within Pakistani territory, India maintained that
warnings had been given to the Atlantique and that its flight trajectory meant it could have fallen on either side of the
border. According to the Indian version of events, the MiGs tried to escort it to a nearby Indian base, when the
Pakistani aircraft turned abruptly and tried to make a dash for the border; it was only then that it was fired upon.
India claimed that the debris was found in a radius of 2 km on either side of the border and that the intrusion took

Atlantique Incident 269

place 10 km inside the Kori Creek, which is Indian territory. Pakistan requested that the matter be taken up in the
UN. Indian officials blamed that there had been previous violations in the area and pointed out that in the previous
year a Pakistani unmanned surveillance aircraft had intruded 150 km inside the Indian border, coming close to the

ri4i

Bhuj air base before the IAF spotted it and brought it down with several missiles.

Indian analysts state "flare-ups" in the Rann of Kutch region were routine, and despite bilateral agreements, both
Indian and Pakistan had conducted air intrusions in the past. Thus, the fact that the Atlantique was shot down,
despite coming close to the Indian border, came as a surprise. Indian officials add that Pakistan military aircraft

had violated Indian airspace at least 50 times since January 1999, showing videotapes of Pakistani Atlantiques

ri7i
"buzzing", or flying provocatively near the Indian Navy's warships in the Indian Ocean. Some Indian analysts

stated that the Atlantique was nearly destroyed in 1983 on a similar encounter and noted other close encounters and

violations from Pakistani naval planes.

Some experts stated that the Atlantique was probably conducting a "probe" on India's air defence system, mainly the
radar equipment in the border area; however, they advised that it was not part of any planned aggressive military

ri7i

action by Pakistan. Foreign diplomats who visited the crash site noted that the plane "may have strayed into
restricted space", and that Islamabad was unable to explain why it was flying so close to the border; they however
added that India's reaction to the incident was not justified. Many countries, the G8, the permanent members of the
UN Security Council, as well as the western media questioned the wisdom behind Pakistan's decision to fly military
aircraft so close to the Indian border.

Rise in tensions

On the day following the attack, an IAF helicopter carrying journalists to the site of the attack was attacked by the
Pakistan Army with a surface-to-air missile. Pakistani officials asserted that two Indian jets had intruded into
Pakistani airspace near the Atlantique wreckage site, along the border between the Indian state of Gujarat and
Pakistan's Sindh Province, and were then fired upon by Pakistan. International and Indian television journalists

traveling in the chopper said the aircraft shook severely and a flash appeared in the air, suggesting a missile had been

T211 ri71

fired at it. The IAF thus aborted their mission to display Atlantique wreckage on Indian soil.

Following this, and the rising tensions in the area coupled by the fact that the Sir Creek was a disputed territory, both
the countries' militaries near the Rann of Kutch and nearby were put on high alert. Pakistan sent a company of
soldiers, equipped with both laser guided and infrared homing shoulder-fired surface-to-air missiles, to the site near

T221

the border. Coming barely weeks after the Kargil Conflict where both nuclear armed countries fought high
altitude warfare, this incident was seen with growing concern around the world. The U.S. State Department termed
the subcontinent as being in a state of "continued high-stakes tension."

Atlantique Incident

270

Lawsuit

On September 21, 1999, Pakistan lodged a compensation
claim at the International Court of Justice (ICJ) in The
Hague, accusing India of shooting down an unarmed
aircraft. Pakistan sought about $60 million in reparations
from India and compensation for the victims' families.

India's attorney general, Soli Sorabjee, argued that the court

T231
did not have jurisdiction, citing an exemption it filed in

1974 to exclude disputes between India and other

Commonwealth States, and disputes covered by

1241
multi-lateral treaties. In the buildup to the case, India

also contended that Pakistan had violated the 1991 bilateral

agreement between Pakistan and India on air violations,

which states: "Combat aircraft (including, Bombers,

Reconnaissance aircrafts, Jet military trainers and Armed

helicopters) will not fly within 10 km of each other's airspace including Air Defense Identification Zone

The International Court of Justice dismissed Pakistan's case on
the grounds that the court did not have jurisdiction.

,,[15]

On June 21, 2000, the 16-judge Bench headed by Gilbert Guillaume of France ruled — with a 14—2

,[2][25]

verdict — upholding India's submission that the court had no jurisdiction in this matter. Pakistan's claims were

dropped, without recourse to appeal, and the outcome was seen as a decision highly favourable to India. The

1271

Pakistan government had spent close to 25 million Pakistani rupees (approx. $400,000) on the case.

Aftermath

The next day, Pakistan fired missiles on one of the three helicopters carrying journalists into the region. Pakistan said

that it fired on Indian fighter jets that were escorting the helicopters and had come inside Pakistani territory

[l]

In India, the incident made the two pilots of the MiG-21s into instant heroes. On October 8, 2000, the

prestigious Vayusena medal was awarded to Squadron Leader P.K. Bundela. The medal was also awarded to Wing

Commander V.S. Sharma (the fighter controller who tracked the Atlantique, guided the pilot and ordered him to

attack the plane) and Squadron Leader Pankaj Vishnoi, the helicopter pilot who recovered a part of the Atlantique's

[291
debris from the marshy border regions of the Rann.

The downing of the Pakistani aircraft came at a particularly bad juncture for the Pakistani Prime Minister, Nawaz
Sharif, who was already under attack from politicians for ordering a withdrawal of its troops from Kargil. Two
months later he was deposed in a bloodless coup d'etat by Gen. Pervez Musharraf.

Notes

[1] Pakistani plane "may have crossed border" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/419325.stm) August 13, 1999 BBC Retrieved

on July 23, 2007
[2] ICJ's Press Communique on the verdict (http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/index.php?sum=585&code=pi&pl=3&p2=3&case=l 19&

k=b5&p3=5) Retrieved on July 23, 2007.
[3] India wins case against Pakistan (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20000622/main3.htm) June 21, 2000 - The Tribune Retrieved on

July 23, 2007
[4] Pakistan dismayed over verdict: ICJ refuses to hear Atlantique case (http://www.lib.virginia.edu/area-studies/SouthAsia/SAserials/

Dawn/2000/jun24.html) June 21, 2000 - Dawn (newspaper) wire service Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[5] Criminal Occurrence description (http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php ?id=19990810-0) at the Aviation Safety Network.

Retrieved on 2007-07-23.
[6] "The Atlantique Incident" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Kargil/Atlantique.html). 1999 Kargil Operations. Bharat

Rakshak Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 2007-03-09.

Atlantique Incident 27 1

[7] Air defence operations (http://www.indianembassy.org/press/New_Delhi_Press/August_1999/Air_Defence_Operations_Aug_17_99.

html) By Narendra Gupta. Taken from The Hindu August 17, 1999 Reproduced by Embassy of India in Washington Retrieved on July 26,

2007
[8] IAF Scores a Kill ! ! ! Factual Account of Interception (http://armedforces.nic.in/airforce/fac.htm) - Indian Air Force official page

Retrieved on July 26, 2007
[9] A Moiz (1999) Core Negativity (http://www.defencejournal.com/sept99/core.htm) Defence Journal, September 1999 Retrieved on July

26, 2007
[10] 21 September 1999 Application instituting proceeding (http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/119/7123.pdf) (PDF) Aerial Incident of 10

August 1999 (Pakistan v. India), International Court of Justice Case page Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[11] "Can't Stop the Madness" (http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/india_pakistanl.html). TIME. August 23—30,

1999 vol 154 NO. 7/8. .

[12] IAF shoots down Pak intruder plane (http://www.indianexpress.com/ie/daily/19990811/ige01049.html); Wednesday, August 11, 1999;

EXPRESS NEWS SERVICE; The Indian Express Retrieved on January 01, 2010
[13] ATLANTIQUE DOWNING: Creek Crisis - The strange encounter in the Rann of Kutch leading to the shooting down of the Pakistani

Altantique sets both countries on the path of confrontation again, (http://www.india-today.com/itoday/19990823/creek.html); By Vijay

Jung Thapa; 1999/08/23; India Today Magazine
[14] Creek Crisis by Vijay Jung Thapa and Aahid Hussain and Uday Mahurkar (http://www.india-today.com/itoday/19990823/creek.html)

August 23, 1999 India Today Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[15] Agreement Between India and Pakistan on the Advance Notice of Military Exercises (http://www.stimson.org/southasia/

?sn=sa20020109216) - Hosted on Henry L. Stimson Center Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[16] Atlantique mission had be cleared at the highest levels By Air Commodore Jasjit Singh (http://www.indianembassy.org/press/

New_Delhi_Press/ August_1999ZPak_Aggression_Air_August_13_1999.htm) Published in The Indian Express August 12, 1999. Hosted on

Embassy of India in Washington webpage
[17] Pakistan Attacks Indian Aircraft in Border Region By Pamela Constable and Kamran Khan (http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/

ind-pak/99-08- 12.htm) August 12, 1999, Washington Post Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[18] Pakistani recce aircraft shot down (Asia-Pacific Report)by S. Mallegol (http://www.highbeam.com/doc/lGl-83679978.html) Journal of

Electronic Defense September 1, 1999 Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[19] Cold War in the Arabian Sea (http://www.mafhoum.com/press2/70P3.htm) Vijay Sakhuja, Research Fellow, Institute for Defence

Studies and Analyses Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[20] Confidence Building Measures in South Asia — The Maritime Angle (http://www.centrovolta.it/landau/South Asia Security

Program_file\Documenti\Workshop South Asia 2004\Talks\8- Ghosh.doc) (DOC Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[21] Tensions renew as Pakistan launches missile at Indian military (http://findarticles.eom/p/articles/mi_qn4196/is_19990812/

a i_nl0529001) by Neelesh Misra Milwaukee Journal Sentinel August 12, 1999 Retrieved on July 26, 2007
[22] Atlantique wreckage image gallery with (http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/other-atlantique-gallery.html) pictures of Pakistani soldiers

(http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/pix/FT0016826.jpg) using infrared (http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/pix/FT0016824.jpg) and laser

guided (http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/pix/Atlantique_Pak_RBS-70.jpg) RBS 70 and Mistral missiles Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[23] ICJ begins hearing on Pak complaint (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2000/20000404/world.htm#4) April 4, 2000 - The Tribune

Retrieved on September 10, 2007
[24] ICJ verdict on jurisdiction in Atlantique case today (http://www.hinduonnet.com/thehindu/2000/06/21/stories/0321000f.htm) June 21,

2000 - The Hindu Retrieved on September 10, 2007

[25] Judgment of 21 June 2000 Jurisdiction of the Court (http://www.icj-cij.org/docket/files/119/8088.pdf) (PDF) Retrieved on July 23,

2007
[26] World court blow for Pakistan (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/800433.stm) BBC June 21, 2000 Retrieved on July 23,

2007
[27] Govt comments sought in Atlantique case (http://www.dawn.com/2002/07/17/nat32.htm) July 17, 2002 - Pakistan's Dawn

(newspaper).
[28] Report on Bundela's critical condition who was "a national hero" (http://origin. ndtv.com/money/templatebusiness. asp?template=&

callid=l&id=25955) - June 11, 2002 NDTV Retrieved on July 23, 2007
[29] Vayusena Medal (VM) (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/Awards/awavml999.htm) Bharat Rakshak Retrieved on July 22, 2007

Atlantique Incident 272

References

• "Can't Stop the Madness" (http://www.time.com/time/asia/asia/magazine/1999/990823/india_pakistanl.
html). TIME. August 23-30, 1999. vol 154 NO. 7/8. Retrieved July 23, 2007

• Indian Air Force account of the incident. (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Kargil/Atlantique.
html) (hosted by Bharat Rakshak) Retrieved July 23, 2007

• Pakistani side of the argument, (http://www.defencejournal.com/sept99/core.htm) Defence Journal,
September 1999 Retrieved July 23, 2007

• Picture gallery of the aircraft wreckage, (http://vayu-sena-aux.tripod.com/other-atlantique-gallery.html)
Retrieved July 23, 2007

• Propaganda War Over Plane Attack, BBC Online (http://www.globalpolicy.org/security/issues/ind-pak/
99-08-10.htm) - Hosted on Global Policy Forum Retrieved July 23, 2007

• 'Internationa l_court_of_justice' Lawyers Collective magazine, September 2000 (http://www.lawyerscollective.
org/lc_mag/freedownloads/magazine2000/September_2000/international_court_of_justice.htm) A brief report
on the legal proceedings and outcomes at the ICJ from a legal perspective. Retrieved November 3, 2006

2008 Mumbai attacks

273

2008 Mumbai attacks

2008 Mumbai attacks

AldM

Cama Hospital' ,

Rail Terminus

WJff/M

•

Oberoi Trident hotel

Leopold Cafe'" Ta J Mahal hotel

Mumbai Chabad House

Map of the 2008 Mumbai attacks

Date

26 November 2008 - 29 November 2008 (1ST, UTC+05:30)

Attack type

Bombings, shootings, hostage crisis, siege

Deaths

[2]
Approximately 164-195 (including 10 attackers)

Injured

More than 308 [2]

Perpetrators

Lashkar-e-Taiba led by Hafiz Muhammad Saeed

The 2008 Mumbai attacks (sometimes referred to as 26/11) were 11 coordinated shooting and bombing attacks
across Mumbai, India's largest city, by Islamist terrorists who came from Pakistan. The attackers allegedly

received reconnaissance assistance before the attacks. Ajmal Kasab, the only attacker who was captured alive later
confessed upon interrogation that the attacks were conducted with the support of Pakistan's ISI. The attacks,

which drew widespread global condemnation, began on Wednesday, 26 November and lasted until Saturday, 29
November 2008, killing 164 people and wounding at least 308.

Eight of the attacks occurred in South Mumbai: at Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus, the Oberoi Trident, the Taj
Mahal Palace & Tower, Leopold Cafe, Cama Hospital (a women and children's hospital), the Nariman House

ri2i ii3i

Jewish community centre, the Metro Cinema, and a lane behind the Times of India building and St. Xavier's
College. There was also an explosion at Mazagaon, in Mumbai's port area, and in a taxi at Vile Parle. By the
early morning of 28 November, all sites except for the Taj hotel had been secured by Mumbai Police and security
forces. On 29 November, India's National Security Guards (NSG) conducted Operation Black Tornado to flush out
the remaining attackers; it resulted in the deaths of the last remaining attackers at the Taj hotel and ending all
fighting in the attacks
,[16]

[15]

Ajmal Kasab disclosed that the attackers were members of Lashkar-e-Taiba, the Pakistan-based militant

organisation, considered a terrorist organisation by India, Pakistan, the United States, the United Kingdom, and the

ii7i ri8i

United Nations, among others. The Indian government said that the attackers came from Pakistan, and their

controllers were in Pakistan. On 7 January 2009, Pakistan's Information Minister Sherry Rehman officially

r2ii

accepted Ajmal Kasab's nationality as Pakistani. On 12 February 2009, Pakistan's Interior Minister Rehman

1221

Malik asserted that parts of the attack had been planned in Pakistan. A trial court on 6 May 2010 sentenced Ajmal
Kasab to death on five counts.

2008 Mumbai attacks

274

Background

There have been many bombings in Mumbai since the 13
coordinated bomb explosions that killed 257 people and injured

700 on 12 March 1993. [23] The 1993 attacks are believed to have

T241
been in retaliation for the Babri Mosque demolition.

On 6 December 2002, a blast in a BEST bus near Ghatkopar
station killed two people and injured 28. The bombing occurred
on the tenth anniversary of the demolition of the Babri Mosque in
Ayodhya. A bicycle bomb exploded near the Vile Parle station
in Mumbai, killing one person and injuring 25 on 27 January 2003,

a day before the visit of the Prime Minister of India Atal Bihari

T271
Vajpayee to the city. On 13 March 2003, a day after the tenth

anniversary of the 1993 Bombay bombings, a bomb exploded in a

train compartment near the Mulund station, killing 10 people and

injuring 70. [28] On 28 July 2003, a blast in a BEST bus in

[291
Ghatkopar killed 4 people and injured 32. On 25 August 2003, two bombs exploded in South Mumbai, one near

the Gateway of India and the other at Zaveri Bazaar in Kalbadevi. At least 44 people were killed and 150 injured.

On 11 July 2006, seven bombs exploded within 11 minutes on the Suburban Railway in Mumbai. 209 people

13211331 T34ir351

were killed, including 22 foreigners and over 700 injured. According to the Mumbai Police, the

r-)/:"! r'2'7"]

bombings were carried out by Lashkar-e-Taiba and Students Islamic Movement of India (SIMI).

One of the bomb-damaged coaches at the Mahim

station in Mumbai during the 1 1 July 2006 train

bombings

Attacks

The first events were detailed around 20:00 Indian Standard Time (1ST) on 26 November, when 10 men in inflatable
speedboats came ashore at two locations in Colaba. They reportedly told local Marathi-speaking fishermen who
asked them who they were to "mind their own business" before they split up and headed two different ways. The
fishermen's subsequent report to police received little response

[38]

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus

The Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) was attacked by two gunmen,

one of whom, Ajmal Kasab, was later caught alive by the police and

identified by eyewitnesses. The attacks began around 21:30 when the

[39]
two men entered the passenger hall and opened fire, using AK-47

rifles. The attackers killed 58 people and injured 104 others,

[39]
their assault ending at about 22:45. Security forces and emergency

services arrived shortly afterwards. The two gunmen fled the scene and

fired at pedestrians and police officers in the streets, killing eight

police officers. The attackers passed a police station. Many of the

outgunned police officers were afraid to confront the attackers, and

instead switched off the lights and secured the gates. The attackers then

headed towards Cama Hospital with an intention to kill patients, but

the hospital staff locked all of the patient wards. A team of the Mumbai Anti-Terrorist Squad led by police chief

Hemant Karkare searched the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus and then left in pursuit of Kasab and Khan. Kasab and

Khan opened fire on the vehicle in a lane next to the hospital and the police returned fire. Karkare, Vijay Salaskar,

Bullet marks on the wall of the suburban terminus
at CST

2008 Mumbai attacks

275

Ashok Kamte and one of their officers were killed, though the only survivor, Constable Arun Jadhav, was

T421
wounded. Kasab and Khan seized the police vehicle but later abandoned it and seized a passenger car instead.

T431
They then ran into a police roadblock, which had been set up after Jadhav radioed for help. A gun battle then

[44]

ensued in which Khan was killed and Kasab was wounded. After a physical struggle, Kasab was arrested. A

police officer, Tukaram Omble was also killed.

Leopold Cafe

The Leopold Cafe, a popular restaurant and bar on Colaba Causeway in South Mumbai, was one of the first sites to

[45]
be attacked. Two attackers opened fire on the cafe on the evening of 26 November, killing at least 10 people

(including some foreigners), and injuring many more. The attackers fired into the street as they fled the scene.

Bomb blasts in taxis

There were two explosions in taxis caused by timer bombs. The first one

occurred at 22:40 at Vile Parle, killing the driver and a passenger. The second

explosion took place at Wadi Bunder between 22:20 and 22:25. Three people

including the driver of the taxi were killed, and about 15 other people were
[14][47]

injured

Bullet marks left at Leopold Cafe

Taj Mahal Hotel and Oberoi Trident

Two hotels, the Taj Mahal Palace & Tower and the Oberoi Trident,
were amongst the four locations targeted. Six explosions were reported
at the Taj hotel - one in the lobby, two in the elevators, three in the

[48] [49]

restaurant - and one at the Oberoi Trident. At the Taj Mahal,

firefighters rescued 200 hostages from windows using ladders during
the first night.

CNN initially reported on the morning of 27 November 2008 that the
hostage situation at the Taj had been resolved and quoted the police
chief of Maharashtra stating that all hostages were freed; however,
it was learned later that day that there were still two attackers holding
hostages, including foreigners, in the Taj Mahal hotel.

The damaged Oberoi Trident hotel

2008 Mumbai attacks

276

During the attacks, both hotels were surrounded by Rapid Action Force

personnel and Marine Commandos (MARCOS) and National Security

r52ir53i
Guards (NSG) commandos. When reports emerged that

attackers were receiving television broadcasts, feeds to the hotels were

T541
blocked. Security forces stormed both hotels, and all nine attackers

were killed by the morning of 29 November. Major Sandeep

Unnikrishnan of the NSG was killed during the rescue of Commando

Sunil Yadav, who was hit in the leg by a bullet during the rescue

operations at Taj. 32 hostages were killed at the Oberoi

Trident.

[59]

The Wasabi restaurant on the first floor of the Taj
Hotel was completely gutted.

A number of European Parliament Committee on International Trade
delegates were staying in the Taj Mahal hotel when it was attacked,
but none of them were injured. British Conservative Member of the
European Parliament (MEP) Sajjad Karim (who was in the lobby when
attackers initially opened fire there) and German Social Democrat
MEP Erika Mann were hiding in different parts of the building.
Also reported present was Spanish MEP Ignasi Guardans, who was
barricaded in a hotel room. Another British Conservative MEP, Syed Kamall, reported that he along with

several other MEPs left the hotel and went to a nearby restaurant shortly before the attack. Kamall also reported
that Polish MEP Jan Masiel was thought to have been sleeping in his hotel room when the attacks started, but
eventually left the hotel safely. Kamall and Guardans reported that a Hungarian MEP's assistant was shot.
Also caught up in the shooting were the President of Madrid, Esperanza Aguirre, while checking in at the Oberoi
Trident, and Indian MP N. N. Krishnadas of Kerala and Sir Gulam Noon while having dinner at a restaurant in
theTajhotel. [67][68]

Nariman House

Nariman House, a Chabad Lubavitch Jewish center in Colaba known
as the Mumbai Chabad House, was taken over by two attackers and
several residents were held hostage. Police evacuated adjacent
buildings and exchanged fire with the attackers, wounding one. Local
residents were told to stay inside. The attackers threw a grenade into a
nearby lane, causing no casualties. NSG commandos arrived from
Delhi, and a Naval helicopter took an aerial survey. During the first
day, 9 hostages were rescued from the first floor. The following day,
the house was stormed by NSG commandos fast-roping from
helicopters onto the roof, covered by snipers positioned in nearby
buildings. After a long battle, one NSG commando Havaldar Gajender
Singh Bisht and both perpetrators were killed. Rabbi Gavriel
Holtzberg and his wife Rivka Holtzberg, who was six months
pregnant, were murdered with four other hostages inside the house by

the attackers

[71]

Front view of the Nariman House a week after the
attacks

According to radio transmissions picked up by Indian intelligence, the

attackers "would be told by their handlers in Pakistan that the lives of

Jews were worth 50 times those of non-Jews." Injuries reported on some of the bodies indicate they may have been

tortured. [72][73]

2008 Mumbai attacks 277

End of the attacks

By the morning of 27 November, the army had secured the Jewish outreach center at Nariman House as well as the
Oberoi Trident hotel. They also incorrectly believed that the Taj Mahal Palace and Towers had been cleared of
attackers, and soldiers were leading hostages and holed-up guests to safety, and removing bodies of those killed in
the attacks. However, later news reports indicated that there were still two or three attackers in the Taj,

with explosions heard and gunfire exchanged. Fires were also reported at the ground floor of the Taj with plumes
of smoke arising from the first floor. The final operation at the Taj Mahal Palace hotel was completed by the NSG

T771

commandos at 08:00 on 29 November, killing three attackers and resulting in the conclusion of the attacks. The
security forces rescued 250 people from the Oberoi, 300 from the Taj and 60 people (members of 12 different

T781

families) from Nariman House. In addition, police seized a boat filled with arms and explosives anchored at

[791
Mazgaon dock off Mumbai harbour.

Attribution

The Mumbai attacks were planned and directed by Lashkar-e-Taiba militants inside Pakistan, and carried out by ten

young armed men trained and sent to Mumbai and directed from inside Pakistan via mobile phones and
VoI p [7][80][81]

In July 2009 Pakistani authorities confirmed that LeT plotted and financed the attacks from LeT camps in Karachi

TR21

and Thatta. In November 2009, Pakistani authorities charged seven men they had arrested earlier, of planning and
executing the assault.

Mumbai police originally identified 37 suspects — including two army officers — for their alleged involvement in the
plot. All but two of the suspects, many of whom are identified only through aliases, are Pakistani. Two more
suspects arrested in the United States in October 2009 for other attacks were also found to have been involved in
planning the Mumbai attacks. One of these men, Pakistani American David Headley, was found to have made

several trips to India before the attacks and gathered video and GPS information on behalf of the plotters.

In April 2011, the United States issued arrest warrants for four Pakistani men as suspects in the attack. The men,

Sajid Mir, Abu Qahafa, Mazhar Iqbal, and alias "Major Iqbal", are believed to be members of Lashkar-e-Taiba and

rs7i
helped plan and train the attackers.

Negotiations with Pakistan

Pakistan initially denied that Pakistanis were responsible for the attacks, blaming plotters in Bangladesh and Indian
criminals, a claim refuted by India, and saying they needed information from India on other bombings first.

Pakistani authorities finally agreed that Ajmal Kasab was a Pakistani on 7 January 2009, and registered a

[931
case against three other Pakistani nationals.

The Indian government supplied evidence to Pakistan and other governments, in the form of interrogations,
weapons, and call records of conversations during the attacks. In addition, Indian government officials said that

the attacks were so sophisticated that they must have had official backing from Pakistani "agencies", an accusation
denied by Pakistan.

Under US and UN pressure, Pakistan arrested a few members of Jamaat ud-Dawa and briefly put its founder under

house arrest, but he was found to be free a few days later. A year after the attacks, Mumbai police continued to

complain that Pakistani authorities are not cooperating by providing information for their investigation.

Meanwhile, journalists in Pakistan said security agencies were preventing them from interviewing people from

Kasab's village. Home Minister P. Chidambaram said the Pakistani authorities had not shared any information

[99]
about American suspects Headley and Rana, but that the FBI had been more forthcoming.

An Indian report, summarising intelligence gained from India's interrogation of David Headley, was released in
October 2010. It alleged that Pakistan's intelligence agency (ISI) had provided support for the attacks by providing

2008 Mumbai attacks 278

funding for reconnaissance missions in Mumbai. The report included Headley's claim that Lashkar-e-Taiba's
chief military commander, Zaki-ur-Rahman Lakhvi, had close ties to the ISI. He alleged that "every big action of
LeT is done in close coordination with [the] ISI."

Investigation

'J t?" i ^H

Police looking for attackers outside Colaba

According to investigations, the attackers travelled by sea from
Karachi, Pakistan, across the Arabian Sea, hijacked the Indian fishing
trawler 'Kuber', killed the crew of four, then forced the captain to sail
to Mumbai. After murdering the captain, the attackers entered Mumbai
on a rubber dinghy. The captain of 'Kuber', Amar Singh Solanki, had
earlier been imprisoned for six months in a Pakistani jail for illegally
fishing in Pakistani waters. The attackers stayed and were trained
by the Lashkar-e-Taiba in a safehouse at Azizabad near Karachi before

boarding a small boat for Mumbai.

David Headley was a member of Lashkar-e-Taiba, and between 2002 and 2009 Headley travelled extensively as part
of his work for LeT. Headley received training in small arms and countersurveillance from LeT, built a network of
connections for the group, and was chief scout in scoping out targets for Mumbai attack having allegedly

been given $25,000 in cash in 2006 by an ISI officer known as Major Iqbal, The officer also helped him arrange a
communications system for the attack, and oversaw a model of the Taj Mahal Hotel so that gunmen could know their
way inside the target, according to Headley's testimony to Indian authorities. Headley also helped ISI recruit Indian
agents to monitor Indian troop levels and movements, according to a US official. At the same time, Headley was also
an informant for the U.S. Drug Enforcement Administration, and Headley's wives warned American officials of

Headley's involvement with LeT and his plotting attacks, warning specifically that the Taj Mahal Hotel may be their

. [104]
target.

US officials believed that the Inter-Services Intelligence (I.S.I.) officers provided support to Lashkar-e-Taiba
militants who carried out the attacks.

Method

The attackers had planned the attack several months ahead of time and knew some areas well enough for the
attackers to vanish, and reappear after security forces had left. Several sources have quoted Kasab telling the police
that the group received help from Mumbai residents. The attackers used at least three SIM cards purchased

on the Indian side of the border with Bangladesh. There were also reports of a SIM card purchased in the US
state New Jersey. Police had also mentioned that Faheem Ansari, an Indian Lashkar operative who had been
arrested in February 2008, had scouted the Mumbai targets for the November attacks. Later, the police arrested
two Indian suspects, Mikhtar Ahmad, who is from Srinagar in Kashmir, and Tausif Rehman, a resident of Kolkata.
They supplied the SIM cards, one in Calcutta, and the other in New Delhi.

Type 86 Grenades made by China's state-owned Norinco were used in the attacks.

Blood tests on the attackers indicate that they had taken cocaine and LSD during the attacks, to sustain their energy
and stay awake for 50 hours. Police say that they found syringes on the scenes of the attacks. There were also
indications that they had been taking steroids. The gunman who survived said that the attackers had used Google
Earth to familiarise themselves with the locations of buildings used in the attacks.

There were ten gunmen, nine of whom were subsequently shot dead and one captured by security forces.
Witnesses reported that they looked to be in their early twenties, wore black t-shirts and jeans, and that they smiled
and looked happy as they shot their victims.

2008 Mumbai attacks 279

It was initially reported that some of the attackers were British citizens, but the Indian government later

ri2ii ri22i

stated that there was no evidence to confirm this. Similarly, early reports of twelve gunmen were also later

T31
shown to be incorrect.

On 9 December, the ten attackers were identified by Mumbai police, along with their home towns in Pakistan: Ajmal
Amir from Faridkot, Abu Ismail Dera Ismail Khan from Dera Ismail Khan, Hafiz Arshad and Babr Imran from
Multan, Javed from Okara, Shoaib from Narowal, Nazih and Nasr from Faisalabad, Abdul Rahman from Arifwalla,

and Fahad Ullah from Dipalpur Taluka. Dera Ismail Khan is in the North-West Frontier Province; the rest of the

ri23i
towns are in Pakistani Punjab.

On 6 April 2010, the Home minister of Maharashtra State, which includes Mumbai, informed the assembly that the
bodies of the nine killed Pakistani gunmen from the 2008 attack on Mumbai were buried in a secret location in
January 2010. The bodies had been in the mortuary of a Mumbai hospital after Muslim clerics in the city refused to
let them be buried on their grounds.

Arrests

Ajmal Kasab was the only attacker arrested alive by police and is currently under arrest. Much of the

information about the attackers' preparation, travel, and movements comes from his confessions to the Mumbai

,. [126]
police.

On 12 February 2009 Pakistan's Interior Minister Rehman Malik said that Pakistani national Javed Iqbal, who

acquired VoIP phones in Spain for the Mumbai attackers, and Hamad Ameen Sadiq, who had facilitated money

[93]
transfer for the attack, had been arrested. Two other men known as Khan and Riaz, but whose full names were not

given, were also arrested. Two Pakistanis were arrested in Brescia, Italy (north-west of Milan), on 21 November

2009, after being accused of providing logistical support to the attacks and transferring over US$200 to internet

ri2sin2Qi
accounts using a false ID. They had Red Corner Notices issued against them by Interpol for their suspected

involvement and it was issued after the last year's strikes.

In October 2009, two Chicago men were arrested and charged by the FBI for involvement in terrorism abroad, David
Coleman Headley and Tahawwur Hussain Rana. Headley, a Pakistani-American, was charged in November 2009
with scouting locations for the 2008 Mumbai attacks. Headley is reported to have posed as an American Jew

and is believed to have links with militant Islamist groups based in Bangladesh. On 18 March 2010, Headley
pled guilty to a dozen charges against him thereby avoiding going to trial.

In December 2009, the FBI charged Abdur Rehman Hashim Syed, a retired major in the Pakistani army, for planning
the terror attacks in association with Headley.

On 15 January 2010, in a successful snatch operation R&AW agents nabbed Sheikh Abdul Khwaja, one of the
handlers of the 26/11 attacks, chief of HuJI India operations and a most wanted terror suspect in India, from
Colombo, Sri Lanka, and brought him over to Hyderabad, India for formal arrest.

Casualties and compensation

At least 166 victims (civilians and security personnel) and nine attackers were killed in the attacks. Among the dead
were 28 foreign nationals from 10 countries. One attacker was captured. The bodies of many

of the dead hostages showed signs of torture or disfigurement. A number of those killed were notable figures in
business, media, and security services.

The government of Maharashtra announced about ^ 500000 (US$9975) as compensation to the kin of each of those
killed in the terror attacks and about ^ 50000 (US$997.5) to the seriously injured. In August 2009, Indian Hotels
Company and the Oberoi Group received about $28 million USD as part-payment of the insurance claims, on
account of the attacks on Taj Mahal and Trident, from General Insurance Corporation of India.

2008 Mumbai attacks

280

Aftermath

The attacks are sometimes referred to in India as "26/11", after the date in 2008 that they began and the
nomenclature behind the 9/11 attacks (akin to that of the 3/11 attack in Madrid). The Pradhan Inquiry Commission,
appointed by the Maharashtra government, produced a report that was tabled before the legislative assembly over
one year after the events. The report said the "war-like" attack was beyond the capacity of any police force, but it
also found fault with the Mumbai Police Commissionaer Hasan Gafoor's lack of leadership during the crisis.

The Maharashtra government planned to buy 36 speed boats to patrol the coastal areas and several helicopters for the
same purpose. It also planned to create an anti-terror force called "Force One" and upgrade all the weapons that
Mumbai police currently have. Prime Minister Manmohan Singh on an all-party conference declared that legal
framework would be strengthened in the battle against terrorism and a federal anti-terrorist intelligence and
investigation agency, like the FBI, will be set up soon to coordinate action against terrorism. The government
strengthened anti-terror laws with UAPA 2008, and the federal National Investigation Agency was formed.

The attacks further strained India's slowly recovering relationship with Pakistan. External Affairs Minister Pranab
Mukherjee declared that India may indulge in military strikes against terror camps in Pakistan to protect its territorial

integrity. There were also after-effects on the United States's relationships with both countries

[149]

the US-led

NATO war in Afghanistan, and on the Global War on Terror. FBI chief Robert Mueller praised the

"unprecedented cooperation" between American and Indian intelligence agencies over Mumbai terror attack

probe

[152]

Interpol secretary general Ronald Noble indicated Indian intelligence agencies did not share any

information with them

[153]

Movement of troops

Pakistan moved troops towards the border with India border voicing concerns about the Indian government's possible
plans to launch attacks on Pakistani soil if it did not cooperate. After days of talks, the Pakistan government,
however, decided to start moving troops away from the border.

Reactions

Indians criticised their political leaders after the attacks, saying
that their ineptness was partly responsible. The Times of India
commented on its front page that "Our politicians fiddle as
innocents die." Political reactions in Mumbai and India

included a range of resignations and political changes, including
the resignations of Minister for Home Affairs Shivraj Patil,
Chief Minister Vilasrao Deshmukh and Deputy Chief Minister
R. R. Patil for controversial reactions to the attack including
taking the former's son and Bollywood director Ram Gopal Verma
to tour the damaged Taj Mahal and the latters remarks that the
attacks were not a big deal in such a large city. Prominent Muslim
personalities such as Bollywood actor Aamir Khan appealed to
their community members in the country to observe Eid al-Adha
as a day of mourning on 9 December. The business

establishment also reacted, with changes to transport, and requests
for an increase in self-defense capabilities. The attacks also

triggered a chain of citizens' movements across India such as the
India Today Group's "War Against Terror" campaign. There were

.

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Candlelight vigils at the Gateway of India in Mumbai

Few citizens outside the Taj Mahal Palace and Tower
hotel demanded the government to act.

2008 Mumbai attacks 28 1

vigils held across all of India with candles and placards commemorating the victims of the attacks. The NSG
commandos based in Delhi also met criticism for taking 10 hours to reach the 3 sites under attack.

International reaction for the attacks was widespread, with many
countries and international organisations condemning the attacks
and expressing their condolences to the civilian victims. Many
important personalities around the world also condemned the
attacks.

Media coverage highlighted the use of social media and Internet
social networking tools, including Twitter and Flickr, in spreading
information about the attacks. In addition, many Indian bloggers
and Wikipedia offered live textual coverage of the attacks. A
map of the attacks was set up by a web journalist using Google
Maps. [166][167] The New York Times, in July 2009, described the
event as "what may be the most well-documented terrorist attack anywhere."

In November 2010, families of American victims of the attacks filed a lawsuit in Brooklyn, New York, naming Lt.
Gen. Ahmed Shuja Pasha, chief of the I.S.I., as being complicit in the Mumbai attacks. On 22 September 201 1, the
attack on the American Embassy in Afghanistan, was attributed to Pakistan via cell phone records identical to the
attacks in Mumbai, also linked to Pakistan. The investigation continues.

Trials
Kasab's trial

Kasab's trial was delayed due to legal issues, as many Indian lawyers were unwilling to represent him. A Mumbai
Bar Association passed a resolution proclaiming that none of its members would represent Kasab. However, the
Chief Justice of India stated that Kasab needed a lawyer for a fair trial. A lawyer for Kasab was eventually found, but
was replaced due to a conflict of interest. On 25 February 2009, Indian investigators filed an 11,000-page
chargesheet, formally charging Kasab with murder, conspiracy, and waging war against India among other charges.

Kasab's trial began on 6 May 2009. He initially pleaded not guilty, but later admitted his guilt on 20 July 2009. He
initially apologised for the attacks and claimed that he deserved the death penalty for his crimes, but later retracted
these claims, saying that he had been tortured by police to force his confession, and that he had been arrested while
roaming the beach. The court had accepted his plea, but due to the lack of completeness within his admittance, the
judge had deemed that many of the 86 charges were not addressed and therefore the trial continued.

Kasab was convicted of all 86 charges on 3 May 2010. He was found guilty of murder for directly killing seven
people, conspiracy to commit murder for the deaths of the 166 people killed in the three-day terror siege, waging war
against India, causing terror, and of conspiracy to murder two high-ranking police officers. On 6 May 2010, he was

sentenced to death by hanging. However, he appealed his sentence at high court. On 21 February

11731
201 1, the Bombay High Court upheld the death sentence of Kasab, dismissing his appeal.

Trials in Pakistan

Indian and Pakistani police have exchanged DNA evidence, photographs and items found with the attackers to piece
together a detailed portrait of the Mumbai plot. Police in Pakistan have arrested seven people, including Hammad
Amin Sadiq, a homoeopathic pharmacist, who arranged bank accounts and secured supplies. Sadiq and six others
begin their formal trial on 3 October 2009 in Pakistan, though Indian authorities say the prosecution stops well short
of top Lashkar leaders. In November 2009, Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh said that Pakistan has not
done enough to bring the perpetrators of the attacks to justice.

2008 Mumbai attacks 282

On the eve of the first anniversary of 26/11, a Pakistani anti-terror court formally charged seven accused, including
LeT operations commander Zaki ur Rehman Lakhvi. However the actual trial started on 5th may 2012.

Trials in U.S.A.

The LeT operative David Headley in his testimony before a Chicago federal court during co-accused Tahawwur
Rana's trial revealed that Mumbai Chabad House was added to the list of targets for surveillance given by his Inter
Services Intelligence handler Major Iqbal, though the Oberoi hotel, one of the sites attacked, was not originally on
the list. On 10 June 2011, Tahawwur Rana was acquitted of plotting the 2008 Mumbai attacks, but was held
guilty on two other charges.

Locations

All the incidents except the explosion at Vile Parle took place in downtown South Mumbai.

Oberoi Trident at Nariman Point; 18°55'38"N 72°49'14"E

Taj Mahal Palace & Tower near the Gateway of India; 18°55'18"N 72°50'00"E

Leopold Cafe, a popular tourist restaurant in Colaba; 18°55'20"N 72°49'54"E

Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus (CST) railway station; 18°56'26"N 72°50'11"E (express train terminus),

18°56'26"N 72°50'07"E (suburban terminus)

Badruddin Tayabji Lane behind the Times of India building. 18°56'32"N 72°50'01"E

Near St. Xavier's College 18°56'38"N 72°49'55"E.

Cama and Albless Hospital; 18°56'34"N 72°49'59"E

Nariman House (Chabad House) Jewish outreach center; 18°54'59"N 72°49'40"E

Metro Cinema 18°56'35"N 72°49'46"E

Mazagaon docks in Mumbai's port area;

Vile Parle near the airport

Memorials

On the first anniversary of the event, the state paid homage to the victims of the attack. Force One — a new security

force created by the Maharashtra government — staged a parade from Nariman Point to Chowpatty. Other memorials

n 7ri
and candlelight vigils were also organised at the various locations where the attacks occurred.

M791

On the second anniversary of the event, homage was again paid to the victims. Security forces were also

displayed from Nariman Point.

On the evening of 27 November 201 1, a flash mob surfaced at the Chhatrapati Shivaji Terminus. The mob consisting
of a group of 200 people danced to the Rang De Basanti title soundtrack with the intention of paying tribute to the
victims of the attacks.

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html). CNN-IBN. 29 November 2011. . Retrieved 29 November 2011.

External links

• Two hundred Indian bloggers react to the attack on Mumbai (http://www.indiblogger.in/topic. php?topic=l)

• Channel 4 documentary by Dan Reed — 'Terror in Mumbai' (http://europenews.dk/en/node/24746)

• Video showing the way in which Indian authorities fought back against the attackers. (http://www.youtube.
com/watch?v=HCAXnXTMFOY) - CNN-IBN (some Hindi, but mostly English).

• Dossier of evidence collected by investigating agencies of India (http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/
MumbaiDossier/Mumbai- 1 -20- 1 st.htm)

• List of Blogs & Bloggers who were live blogging during the attacks (http://blog.blogadda.com/2008/ll/27/
live-blogging-mumbai-terrorist-attacks)

• If Each Of Us Had A Gun We Could Help Combat Terrorism — Journalist Richard Munday talks about the
horrific terrorist attacks in Mumbai, India (http://www.britainneedsguns.co.uk/media/IfEach Of Us Had A
Gun.pdf)

2011 India-Pakistan border shooting

The 2011 India— Pakistan border shooting incident took place between 30 August (Tuesday) and 1 September
201 1 (Thursday) across the Line of Control in Kupwara District/Neelam Valley resulting in one Indian soldier and
three Pakistani soldiers being killed. Both countries gave different accounts of the incident, each accusing the other
of initiating the hostilities.

The Incident

Pakistani sources claimed that the fighting started when Indian border security forces opened fire on a Pakistani

[21

checkpoint based on the Line of Control in the Neelam Valley of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The Inter Services
Public Relations spokesman Major General Athar Abbas confirmed the incident had taken place while talking to
BBC Urdu. Abbas dubbed the attack as unprovoked and said the attack had been protested with India during a border

[21

meeting. He claimed that three soldiers were moving from one post to another when they got lost during bad

[31

weather and after a 24-hour search, their bodies were recovered.

Lieutenant-Colonel J.S. Brar, spokesman for the Indian Army, claimed that the incident started when Pakistan made
an infiltration bid in the Keran Sector of Kupwara District, Jammu and Kashmir on Tuesday (30 August 201 1) which
was foiled by Indian security forces. He claimed that on Wednesday (31 August 2011) night, at around 20:00 hours,
an Indian border post was fired on by Pakistani troops. Following the first shots, both sides engaged in a firefight,
with the Indians claiming that heavy mortars and machine guns were used, and that the shooting lasted for about 50
minutes. Accusing Pakistan of two ceasefire violations in the space of fifteen hours, India claimed that the exchange
of fire continued at 1100 hours the following day after a brief lull.

201 1 IndiaPakistan border shooting 292

Casualties

India confirmed the death of one soldier during the incident. He was identified as Naib Subedar Gurdayal Singh.
Pakistan announced that three soldiers of the irregular Mujahid Battalion were also killed.

References

[1] "Kashmir border deaths spark India and Pakistan row" (http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-14746985). BBC. . Retrieved 2

September 2011.
[2] "LoC: Three Pakistani soldiers died in attack by Indian forces" (http://tribune.com.pk/story/243324/

loc-three-pakistani-soldiers-die-in-attack-by-indian-forces/). The Express Tribune. 1 September 2011. . Retrieved 1 September 2011.
[3] "Three Pakistan soldiers dead in India border firing" (http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/

ALeqM5hXrPbp-kVOUaDsx_lTB9_Dhqvu9Q?docId=CNG.4059a4a82371e59484c58692e9c532a7.381). AFP. . Retrieved 2 September

2011.
[4] "Pak troops violate ceasefire twice, three soldiers killed" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article2417251.ece). The Hindu. .

Retrieved 2 September 201 1.

293

In popular culture

294

Films (Indian)

Hindustan Ki Kasam

Hindustan Ki Kasam

Directed by

Chetan Anand

Produced by

Ravi Anand

Starring

Raaj Kumar
Amjad Khan
Amrish Puri
Parikshat Sahni

Music by

Madan Mohan

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Hindustan Ki Kasam (English: (The Oath of Hindustan) is a 1973 war movie based on the Indo-Pakistani War of
1971 directed by Chetan Anand.

Cast

Chetan Anand
Vijay Anand
Raaj Kumar
Priya Rajvansh
Balraj Sahni
Padma Khanna
Amjad Khan
Amrish Puri
Parikshat Sahni
Bharat Kapoor
Nitin Sethi
Satyendra Kapoor

Synopsis

The movie is different from other war movies in Indian cinema as it vividly describes the IAF's role in 1971
Indo-Pakistani war in the western sector.

The film starts with an air raid by Pakistan Air Force (PAF) on an Indian Air Force (IAF) airbase in the western
sector in India. After the raid a pilot (Raj Kumar) takes an oath while standing near the body of a dead ground
crewman - "Jawaab dene aaunga, is jawan ki kasam, Hindustan Ki Kasam" (we will avenge, we swear by this
soldier, we swear by Hindustan). The credits start while the title song of the movie is played in the background (sung
by the Mohammed Rafi and Manna Dey).

The movie revolves around the IAF's mission of destroying a PAF radar which blocks IAF pilots radios in combat.
Indian intelligence plant Tahira (Priya Rajvansh), who is the fiancee of a PAF pilot (Amjad Khan). Tahira goes to

Hindustan Ki Kasam 295

Pakistan and starts working as a singer on Pakistan TV (PTV) studio (where the radar which jams the radio
frequency of IAF jets is also kept). Tahira informs the IAF about the jammer. IAF asks her to leave the building in
the night after her programme is done so that they can raid the building.

PAF's counter intelligence learns about her and they zero in on her on that very night. As soon her programme is
finished the IAF air raids the studio while she is still inside. In the dogfight with Pak sabers Raj Kumar's jet is
destroyed and he crashes. He radios for help and the IAF fighters destroy the pursuing Pakistani soldiers and their
vehicles. The pilot and Tahira are evacuated. The movie ends with IAF's flypast on the Republic day parade in New
Delhi, with the title song in the background.

References
External links

• Hindustan Ki Kasam (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0154591/) at the Internet Movie Database

• click to see scenes form the movie (http://iafOO.tripod.com/hkk.html)

Aakraman

296

Aakraman

Aakraman

Directed by

J. Om Prakash

Produced by

Jagdsih Kumar

Written by

Sachin Bhowmick

Starring

Ashok Kumar
Sanjeev Kumar
Rakesh Roshan

Music by

Laxmikant Pyarelal

Cinematography

V. Babasaheb

Editing by

Pratap Dave

Release date(s)

14 May 1975

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Aakraman is a 1975 Hindi war film. Produced by Jagdish Kumar and directed by J. Om Prakash. The war film stars
Ashok Kumar, Sanjeev Kumar, Rekha, Rakesh Roshan, Farida Jalal, Sujit Kumar, Asrani, Keshto Mukherjee,
Mumtaz Shanti and Rajesh Khanna. The music is by Laxmikant Pyarelal.

This film portrays the love angle between two army officers (Sanjeev Kumar and Rakesh Roshan) who fall in love
with the same woman (Rekha) but when the indo-pak war breaks out, all hell breaks loose and the junior officer
vows to take revenge with the other officer who has stolen his sweetheart by proposing her for marriage. But when
they are posted on the frontline during the war he decides to get rid of his superior by planning to kill him once and
for all but fails to do so as he realises his mistake. Sanjeev Kumar is killed by a Pakistani sentry in the end by deceit
and the National flag falls on him. Besides this romantic drama the film also showcases the emotional remembrance
of a father (Ashok Kumar) for his KIA son (not shown) who dies in the previous war i.e. 1965 indo pak-war and
highlights the bravery and courage of Indian soldiers and airmen during the last days of the present 1971 war when
India defeats Pakistan and with this east Pakistan is finished and Bangladesh is created.

Soundtrack

#

Title

Singer(s)

1

"Dekho Veer Jawanon"

Kishore Kumar

2

"Chhoti Umar Mein"

Kishore Kumar

3

"Fauji Gaya Jab Gaon Mein"

Kishore Kumar

4

"Fauji Gaya Jab Gaon Men"

Kishore Kumar

5

"Qawali Gaayenge"

Mahendra Kapoor, Asha Bhosle

6

"Woh Ek Haseen Ladki"

Kishore Kumar

7

"Yeh Mausam Aaya Hai"

Kishore Kumar, Lata Mangeshkar

Aakraman

297

External links

• Aakraman at the Internet Movie Database

Vijeta

Vijeta

Directed by

Govind Nihlani

Produced by

Shashi Kapoor

Written by

Dilip Chitre
Satyadev Dubey

Starring

Shashi Kapoor
Rekha
Amrish Puri
Kunal Kapoor
Supriya Pathak
Om Puri

Music by

Ajit Varman

Distributed by

Film-valas International

Release date(s)

1982

Running time

4909.86m (18 reels)

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Vijeta is a 1982 Hindi film produced by Shashi Kapoor and directed by Govind Nihalani. It stars Shashi Kapoor,
Rekha, Kunal Kapoor, Amrish Puri and Supriya Pathak. The movie also stars K.K. Raina, Raja Bundela and Shafi
Inamdar who went to be notable support actors in Bollywood movies.

Plot

Vijeta (The Victor) is the coming of age story of Angad (Kunal Kapoor). Confused like any other teenager trying to
find himself and caught in between the marital problems of his mother Neelima (Rekha) and father Nihal (Shashi
Kapoor). It is time for him to decide what he wants to do with his life. To select a profession and be someone, Angad
chooses to become a fighter pilot with the Indian Air Force. What follows is his struggle to become a victor both
with his self and the outer world. One side plot, Angad is attracted to Anna Verghese (Supriya Pathak), who is the
daughter of his flying instructor (Amrish Puri). Angad must learn to adapt to flying, leaving his mom and dad for
long periods of time, as well as try and woo Anna who helps him overcome his fears and realize his potential as a
fighter pilot. Plot of movie delicately tackles the issue of religious harmony. Main plot of the movie contains such
complex undertones; Nihal and Neelima are Hindu, Angad a Sikh and Anna a Christian, and Angad's fellow officers
represent all religion.

The film is notable for some rarely seen aerial photography of combat aircraft active with the IAF in 1980s. The
central character of Angad himself is a MiG-21 pilot and is shown flying the aircraft in ground attack role in the
1971 India-Pakistan War. Much of the movie, including the climax involving a MiG-21 bis, was shot at Pune. The
IAF No. 4 Squadron (the 'Oorials') provided the pilots and planes for the film's aerial sequences. The movie included
good color footage of the Oorials aircraft in flight and in operations.

Vijeta 298

Cast

Shashi Kapoor as Nihal Singh

Rekha as Neelima Singh

Supriya Pathak as Anna Verghese

Kunal Kapoor as Angad

Amrish Puri as Group Captain Verghese, the Chief Instructor

Om Puri as Arvind

Dina Pathak as Angad's grandmother (Biji)

Shafi Inamdar as Wing Commander Parulkar

Facts

• The "senior pilots of the Indian Air Force" who are credited with providing assistance with the aerial photography
were drawn from No. 4 Squadron, IAF ("The Fighting Oorials"). It was their MIG-21Bis' that were used in the
aerial combat sequences and much of the film was shot at their then base in Poona/Pune .

• The I.N.S. Mysore seen in the film was a WW2 British Fiji Class Cruiser, H.M.S. Nigeria that was sold to the
Indian Navy in 1957. The ship was decommissioned soon after the film was completed. The current (2006) I.N.S.
Mysore is a newer vessel .

• The aircraft that the pilots train on are domestically produced HAL HJT-16 Kirans .

Filming locations

• Air Force Academy, Dundigal, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, India

• Air Force Station, Pune, Maharashtra, India

• National Defence Academy, Khadakswala, Pune, Maharashtra, India

• R.K. Studios, Chembur, Mumbai, Maharashtra, India

Reception

Film World magazine rated the film "Good" and wrote, "Vijeta is perhaps the first film of its kind, a film which

T21
shows the Indian Air Force, its gallant men and their life in true colours." According to Asiaweek, "Vijeta is a

T31
tribute to the IAF in celebration of its golden jubilee last year".

Awards

• Filmfare Best Cinematographer Award - Govind Nihalani

• Filmfare Best Editing Award - Keshav Naidu

• Filmfare Best Sound Award - Hitendra Ghosh

References

[1] Vijeta (1982) - Trivia - IMDb (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0153545/trivia)

[2] Film World (T.M. Ramachandran) 20. 1983.

[3] C.B. Rao (1983). "Tribute to a Proud Force". Asiaweek (Asiaweek Ltd) 9.

Vijeta

299

External links

• Vijeta (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0153545/) at the Internet Movie Database

Param Vir Chakra (film)

Param Vir Chakra

Directed by

Ashok Kaul

Produced by

Ashok Kaul

Written by

Anees Bazmee

Starring

Saeed Jaffrey
Kulbhushan
Kharbanda
Hema Malini

Music by

Ravindra Jain

Cinematography

Radhu Karmakar

Editing by

Navneet Pataskar

Release date(s)

31 March 1995

Country

j^ India

Language

Hindi

Param Vir Chakra is a 1995 Bollywood war action film directed and written by Ashok Kaul. It stars Saeed Jaffrey,
Kulbhushan Kharbanda and Hema Malini. The film premiered on March 31 1995 in Mumbai.

Cast

• Saeed Jaffrey, as Naval Officer

• Kulbhushan Kharbanda as Army officer

• Hema Malini as Mother Army officer

• Rajesh as Army officer

• Rajeshwari as College student

Soundtracks

#

Title

Singer(s)

1

"Gagan Se Oonchi - Part I"

Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz, Vinod Rathod,

2

"Pyar Ki Vaadiyon Mein - Part I"

Alka Yagnik, Udit Narayan

3

"Pyar Ki Vaadiyon Mein - Part II"

Alka Yagnik, Udit Narayan

4

"Gagan Se Oonchi - Part II"

Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz, Vinod Rathod,

5

"Sun Aaj Mere"

Kumar Sanu, Sadhna Sargam

6

"Ek Baat Kahoon"

Kumar Sanu

7

"Tujh Pe Qurban"

Ravindra Jain, Asha Bhosle

8

"My First Love"

Kumar Sanu, Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz

9

"Pyar Ke Lamhe"

Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz

Param Vir Chakra (film)

300

10 "Param Veer Chakra"

Ravindra Jain

1 1 "Mere Mehboob Mere Watan" Kumar Sanu, Suresh Wadkar, Mohammed Aziz, Asha Bhosle

External links

[i]

• Param Vir Chakra (film) at the Internet Movie Database

• Param Vir Chakra at Dhingana.com

Border (1997 film)

301

Border (1997 film)

Border

DVD Cover

Directed by

J.P. Dutta

Produced by

J.P. Dutta

Screenplay by

J.P. Dutta

Starring

Sunny Deol
Suniel Shetty
Akshaye Khanna
Raakhee
Jackie Shroff
Tabbu
Pooja Bhatt

Kulbhushan Kharbanda
Puneet Issar

Music by

Anu Malik

Cinematography

Ishwar R. Bidri
Nirmal Jani

Editing by

Deepak Wirkud

Distributed by

J.P. Films

Release date(s)

June 13, 1997

Running time

211 mins

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Box office

^61 crore (US$12.17 million)
Original f 149.11 crore (US$29.75
million)
Adjusted [1]

Border (Hindi: ^ksi) is a 1997 blockbuster Bollywood Anti-war film based on the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. J. P.
Dutta directed and produced this war epic which stars Sunny Deol, Sunil Shetty, Akshaye Khanna, Jackie Shroff,
Tabu, Pooja Bhatt, Puneet Issar, Kulbhushan Kharbanda, Raakhee and Sharbani Mukherjee.

The movie is an adaptation from real life events that happened at the Battle of Longewala fought in Rajasthan
(Western Theatre) during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and Bangladesh Liberation War. It is about how a band of
120 soldiers of the Punjab regiment of the Indian Army headed by Major Kuldip Singh Chandpuri successfully
defended their post all night against a whole Tank regiment of the Pakistani Army, until assistance came from the
Indian Air Force the next morning. The film was a critical and commercial hit in India.

Plot

The film opens before the actual declaration of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 as army Major Kuldip Singh
Chandpuri and airforce Wing Commander Anand 'Andy' Bajwa meet on a courier flight and speak about the
possibility of opening of the Western front in light of the East Pakistan conflict. Kuldip takes up command of a Coy
of the 23rd Punjab Regiment, arguing the light defense being assigned to the military post of Longewala. He meets
his second in command Lt Dharamvir Bhan (who happens to be the son of a 1965 Indo-Pakistani-War veteran who

Border (1997 film) 302

was killed during that war) and the Coy NCO Subedar Mathura Das. The company moves to the remote outpost in
the deserts of Rajasthan and begins to expand the rudimentary BSF post and does a recce of the area up to the
international border with Pakistan. They meet the post's BSF commandant Bhairon Singh, a deeply patriotic man
who expresses his love for the desert.

During a night patrol, Kuldip, Lt Dharamvir and Bhairon Singh come across a suspicious bunch of locals who turn
out to be insurgents having informed the identities of the company to the Pakistani military. The trio get into a brief
firefight killing all but one of the insurgents when Dharamvir hesitates to shoot one of the insurgents, as he had never
killed anyone. Kuldip severely derides him and shoots the insurgent himself, prompting Dharamvir to vomit. A badly
shaken Dharamvir is comforted by Bhairon Singh and the two reminisce about their personal lives. Dharamvir
recounts how he met his fiancee Kamla, a lively young girl from his native village who he had fallen for and how he
got his mobilization orders on the day of his engagement to Kamla. Bhairon Singh recounts his wedding night, his
first night with his bride, when he was called back to post and how he bids a tearful goodbye to his beautiful wife
Phool Kanwar.

The unit is joined by the charismatic Subedar Ratan Singh, a man of insatiable appetite and wit, with 2 106mm
jeep-mounted RCL guns to serve as an anti-armour unit. The company wireless operator picks up a spy transmitting
from a nearby area and Dharamvir sets out to investigate. He ambushes the spy and kills the man, bringing the body
back to the post to prove that he has overcome his fear of killing another person. The unit settles down to wait for the
enemy as they keep track of the developing events on the radio. The Indian army starts moving forces to nearby
locations preparing to attack if Pakistan tries to open the Western front and this gives hope of soon-to-come action
for the men tired of the long wait in the hot and desolate desert. Subedar Mathura Das is granted leave to attend to
his wife (who is ailing with cancer) and children. The men receive letters with news from back home and talk among
of themselves of the people they left back home to serve their country.

On the evening of 3 December 1971, the unit receives word that the enemy has attacked with Pakistan Air Force
planes bombing multiple Indian airbases and that war has been officially declared by the Indian Prime Minister
Indira Gandhi. Dharamvir and five of his soldiers are sent to patrol the border within a section while Bhairon Singh
and his men are assigned to clear out the nearby villages. As Bhairon Singh is briefing the villagers on evacuation,
Pakistani artillery batteries start shelling Indian positions and villages. Kuldip joins in the evacuation as heavy
shelling occurs leveling a whole village. In the meanwhile Dharamvir and his patrol spot Pakistani tanks and infantry
crossing the border into India. He reports back the enemy movement to Kuldip and is ordered to secretly follow the
tanks without engaging them. Kuldip radios for air support and speaks to Wing Com Bajwa, who tells him that there
can be no air support as his base has only Hunter-Fighters, which cannot fly at night. In despair, Kuldip radios his
CO and explains his untenable position. He is given the option of either holding his post or retreat, he decides to stay
and so does his entire company.

As the unit digs in to face the enemy assault, Mathura returns and apologizes for deserting the men of his company.
Kuldip thanks him for returning in time and assigns him to the RCL units, promising Mathura that he will return to
his family when the war is over. The post is surrounded by massed enemy armour and infantry while the shelling
from across the border continues relentlessly. Fortunately, Kuldip manages to get the company to bury anti-tank
mines around the post to prevent the tanks from barging in. Upon seeing one of his tanks being blown by one of the
mines, the Pakistani commander Ghulam Dastagir hurls expletives at Kuldip addressing him by name and tells him
to retreat or die. Kuldip lashes back and swears and insults Dastagir, addressing him by name and insulting him. The
tanks open fire on the post and the battle begins with Kuldip ordering Mathura to destroy some more tanks. Though
the tide of the battle is turning good for the Indians at first, it wasn't until Mathura's RCL is hit by a tank shell,
wounding him and prompting Bhairon Singh to extract him from the burning jeep. Mathura is fatally wounded when
he goes to extract a recoil spring for Bhairon Singh's MMG and dies in Bhairon's arms. Subedar sacrifices himself to
throw away an exploding tank shell to prevent several of his men from being killed. Another tank targets Bhairon's
machine gun nest and destroys it, wounding Bhairon. He charges the same tank and destroys it with an anti-tank

Border (1997 film) 303

mine, killing himself and the Pakistani soldiers inside the tank. Dharamvir breaks through the enemy cordon and
returns to post, but his entire patrol is wiped out in the process. The Pakistani commander orders a bayonet charge on
the Indian position but the attack is beaten back by the Indians with Dharamvir being severely wounded. The Indians
capture a Pakistani private who reveals that the Pakistani column plans to capture Jaiselmer by morning, Jodhpur by
afternoon, and reach Delhi by night.

As dawn nears, the Pakistanis launch a last-ditch attempt to overrun Longewala post with their massed assault of
tanks and infantry, ignoring the danger of the anti-tank mines that are still buried. Kuldip gathers the remaining of
his depleted force and prepares for a suicide counter-attack on the advancing enemy. The Indians engage in vicious
hand-to-hand fighting with Kuldip jumping from tank to tank lobbing grenades down the turret hatches. Dawn has
broken as the fight heats up and Bajwa's squadron finally takes off from the Jaisalmer Base to aid Kudip's besieged
coy. During the fight, Kuldip falls on the ground into the sights of a Pakistani tank but before the tank can open fire
to kill him, it is destroyed by cannon fire from an Indian Air Force jet as Bajwa's squadron arrives and the tide of the
battle turns. The Pakistani attack breaks as tank after tank is hit by the planes till they decide to beat a retreat back
across the border. The battle ends as a soldier tries to tell Dharamvir about the victory and realises that he has died.
The unit is relieved as Indian tanks and artillery arrive and more air-strikes beat back enemy reinforcements. The end
credits roll as the Indians launch their counter-offensive and news of the deceased reach their homes, much to their
families' discomfort.

Cast

Sunny Deol as Major Kuldip Singh Chandpuri

Jackie Shroff as Wing Commander Andy Bajwa

Suniel Shetty as Captain Bhairon Singh, B.S.F.

Akshaye Khanna as 2nd Lt. Dharamvir

Puneet Issar as Subedar Ratan Singh

Sudesh Berry as Subedar Mathura Das

Kulbhushan Kharbanda as Phagheeram, the cook

Tabu as Kuldip Singh's wife

Pooja Bhatt as Kamla (Dharamvir's fiancee)

Rakhi as Dharamvir's mother

Sharbani Mukherjee as Bhairon Singh's wife

Awards

National Film Awards

• Nargis Dutt Award for Best Feature Film on National Integration - 1998

• Won: National Film Award for Best Lyrics, India - Javed Akhtar

• Won: National Film Award for Best Male Playback Singer, India - Hariharan For the song "Mere Dushman"

Filmfare Awards

• Filmfare Award for Best Director: J. P. Dutta

Border (1997 film)

304

Soundtrack

The music is composed by Anu Malik while the lyrics are penned by Javed Akhtar. The songs of the film are not

only popular in India but also in Pakistan

[2]

Track listing

No. Title Singer(s) Length

1. "Humein Jab Se Mohabbat" Sonu Nigam, Alka Yagnik 07:33

2. "Hindustan Hindustan" Shankar Mahadevan, Sonali Rathod 08:12

3. "Ke Ghar Ab Aaoge (Sandese Aate Hain)" Roop Kumar Rathod, Sonu Nigam 10:19

4. "Mere Dushman Mere Bhai" Hariharan 10:15

5. "To Chaloon" Roop Kumar Rathod 08:21

Anti-war message

The film intended to make an appeal against war, and thus the end of the movie of depicted most soldiers dead, and
the trauma it caused to their family members.

The lyrics of song Mere Dushman Mere Bhai sung by Hariharan also criticizes war and describes its disastrous
effects, with the lines "Hum Apne Apne Kheton Mein Gehoon Ki Jagah Chaanval Ki Jagah, Ye Bandookein Kyoon
Botein Hain.... Jab Dono Hi Ki Galiyon Mein, Kuch Bhooke Bachche Rotein Hain....!!" meaning, "Why do we sow
guns in our farms instead of wheat and rice, when in streets of both (of our countries), some hungry children cry...."

[3]

Contradictary views

In 2001, Former Air Marshal M. S. Bawa, the then Base Commander of Jaisalmer, whose role Jackie Shroff played

in the movie, said, "Border was a complete distortion of history. The Army did not even fire one bullet. The thrust of

mi
the Pakistani armour was blunted entirely by air attack.

References

[1] http://www. boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php ?itemCat=126&catName=MTk5MC0xOTk5

[2] Singh, Jupinderjit Here film songs, swaying grass may mean life or death (http://www.tribuneindia.com/201 1/201 1 1 128/main7.htm),

The Tribune, November 28, 2011. Retrieved November 28, 2011.
[3] "Lyrics of Mere Dushman mere bhai" (http://www.lyricsmasti.com/song/1034/get_lyrics_of_Mere-Dushman-Mere-Bhai.html). .
[4] Wadhwaney, Rohit Border bordered on lies: Real-life hero (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/2001 1 102/ncr2.htm#2), The Tribune,

November 2, 2001. Retrieved November 28, 2011.

External links

• Border (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt01 18751/) at the Internet Movie Database

• Border (http://www.allrovi.com/movies/movie/v266775) at AURovi

• LOC Kargil (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0347416/) at the Internet Movie Database

• Interview with J. P. Dutta (http://www.indianexpress.com/res/web/ple/ie/daily/19970509/12950753.html)

LOC Kargil

305

LOC Kargil

LOC Kargil

Theatrical release poster

Directed by

J.P.Dutta

Produced by

J.P. Dutta

Screenplay by

J.P. Dutta

Story by

J.P. Dutta

Starring

Nagarjuna

Akkineni

Puru Rajkumar

Sanjay Dutt

Ajay Devgan

SaifAliKhan

Sunil Shetty

Sanjay Kapoor

Abhishek

Bachchan

Akshaye Khanna

Manoj Bajpai

Rani Mukerji

Kareena Kapoor

Esha Deol

Raveena Tandon

Music by

Anu Malik

Cinematography

Karim Khatri

Distributed by

J P Films

Release date(s)

December 26, 2003

Running time

255 mins

Country

India

Language

Hindi

LOC Kargil is a 2003 Bollywood war film based on the Kargil War, directed and written by J. P. Dutta. The film
stars a large number of Bollywood stars.

Plot

The film is an attempt to dramatize a synopsis of the 1999 Kargil War (Operation Vijay).

The film opens with a dramatic shot of an Indian soldier's wireless set chirping frantic commands from one of the
army bases, calling a patrol to report in, while the radio operator lies dead in the snow. After frantic attempts, from
various battalions, to locate their lost patrols, the Indian Army HQ in Jammu and Kashmir decides to deploy more
troops, but suffers a rude shock when company, and even battalion-sized attacks are beaten back by the largely
unknown enemy sitting on top of the steep and treacherous peaks surrounding Kargil, Mushkoh Valley, Drass,
Batalik and the Kaksar sectors. After these terrible and surprising reverses the decision is taken to go ahead with
maximum mobilization and move its best fighting units into the area of operations.

The first unit deployed is 1/11 Gurkhas (1st Bn 11th Regiment) who are specialists in high altitude warfare. 1/11 is
led by its CO, Col. Lalit Rai (Sudesh Berry), and has the charismatic and brave Lt. Manoj Pandey (Ajay Devgan)

LOC Kargil 306

leading one of its platoons. Subsequently, the 18th Grenadiers, which was in the Kashmir Valley guarding against
terrorist infiltration when they were urgently summoned to help throw out the intruders, are deployed. The
Granadiers were led by Colonel Khushal Thakur (Raj Babbar), and among the officers and soldiers were men like Lt.
Col R Vishwanathan (Mohnish Behl), Major Rajesh Adhikari (Karan Nath), Lt. Balwan Singh (Akshaye Khanna),
Captain Sachin Nimbalkar (Vineet Sharma), and Grenadiers Yogendra Singh Yadav (Ashutosh Rana & Manoj
Bajpai). Other units like the 17th Jat, 2nd Rajputana Rifles, 22 & 16 Grenadiers, 2 Naga, 1 Bihar, 8 Sikh, 18
Garhwal Rifles, 12 JAK LI, 3 Punjab and 13th J&K Rifles are also inducted into the theater of conflict.

The first assault is by the 1/1 1 Gurkhas advance platoon led by Lt. Manoj Pandey which links with the beleaguered
and severely mauled Sikh Bn and then follows up to launch its attack on Kukarthang post which is a very heavily
defended enemy position supported by mortar units and artillery batteries on the Pakistani side of LOC. The Gurkhas
take Kukarthang after suffering heavy casualties revealing that the enemy is not a rag-tag bunch of Mujahiddin but
rather a trained army unit which is being given full fire support from across the LOC.

The second battle is at the strategic Tololing mountain which sits astride the vital National Highway 1, the main
supply route for the entire Northern Kashmir sector including Siachen and Leh. Col. Khushal's 18th Grenadiers 1st
company, led by Major Adhikari, attacks Tololing. The company is held up midway to the top due to heavy fog, so it
decides to wait for clear weather. The men when half asleep suffer intense shelling from artillery and mortars,
causing several casualties and panic. They try to get to safety by moving up the mountain, but are pushed down by
heavy small arms fire from intruders dug into the well-prepared position atop the mountain. Subsequent
counter-attacks from the Indians are stifled by stiff resistance, in the absence of artillery support for the Indians,
claiming the lives of Major Adhikari and Lt. Col. Vishwanathan.

The 18th Grenadiers are relieved by 2nd Rajputana Rifles, commanded by Col. Ravindranath (Ashish Vidyarthi),
which moves in with an artillery battery of 110 mm field artillery and acclimatised troops. They launch a
multi-pronged attack under artillery cover which ends in success, but at the cost of losing many officers and ranks,
including Capt. Vijayant Thapar (Amar Upadhyay), Maj. Padmapani Acharya (Nagarjuna Akkineni) and Maj. Vivek
Gupta (Himanshu Malik). All this happens while the 13th J&K Rifles led by Lt. Col. Y K Joshi (Sanjay Dutt) stands
by in case the 2nd Raj Rif fails.

The 13th JAK Rif is blooded at Rocky Mount where they take the field after suffering heavy casualties and then
follows it up with another victory at Point 5140 where Captain Vikram Batra (Abhishek Bachchan) distinguishes
himself by taking the south face of Pt 5140 without any casualties and is promoted to captain.

The decisive phase of the of war has come. 18th Grenadiers are assigned to take Tiger Hill, 17th Jat to Three Pimple
complex feature, 1/11 Gurkha to Khalubar Ridge and 13th J&K to Bunker Complex. The Grenadiers take Tiger Hill
after a daring stealth attack by the elite Ghatak section, losing its lead Nk Yogender Yadav (Ashutosh Rana), and
only one of them Grenadier Yogender Yadav (Manoj Bajpai) survives to link up with the rest of the battalion. 17th
Jat suffers heavy casualties with Captain Anuj Nayyar (Saif Ali Khan) and several others injured, but is able to
secure Three Pimple complex.

1/1 1 Gurkha links up with 22 Grenadiers at the base of Khalubar Ridge after braving an intense creeping barrage of
artillery. Pandey somehow keeps the sagging morale of the weary unit up till the battalion begins its attack. The
plans go awry as Gurkha CO Col Rai is injured by machine gun fire. Pandey volunteers to take out the bunkers
which are holding up the attack. The machine guns are taken out, but Pandey is killed in action.

The last battle is fought by the 13th J&K attacking Bunker Complex but the unit gets split up and Capt Batra is sent
to link up with Captain Nagappa (Nagender Choudhary ) who has been captured one bunkar and surrounded by
enemy , Batra links up with capt. Nagappa but is pinned down himself by heavy enemy fire, he single handedly takes
out two bunkers but is mortally wounded. The 13th JAK pursues the enemy to the LOC but stops due to orders not to
cross the LOC. Finally India declares 'OPEARTION VIJAY' a success and victory and secures all its captured
heights from the deceitful and cunning Pakistani adversary.

LOC Kargil

307

Cast

Actor

Role

Nagarjuna Akkineni

Maj. Padmapani Acharya, 2 Rajputana Rifles

Sanjay Dutt

Lt Col. Y.K. Joe, 13 JAK Rifles

Ajay Devgan

Lt. Manoj Kumar Pandey, 1/1 1 Gurkha Rifles

SaifAliKhan

Capt. Anuj Nayyar, 17 JAT

Suniel Shetty

Rfn Sanjay Kumar, 13 JAK Rifles

Sanjay Kapoor

Maj. Deepak Rampal, 17 JAT

Abhishek Bachchan

Capt. Vikram Batra, 13 JAK Rifles

Akshaye Khanna

Lt. Balwan Singh, 18 Grenadiers

Manoj Bajpai

Gren. Yogender Singh Yadav, 18 Grenadiers

Amar Upadhyay

Capt. Vijayanth Thapar, 2 Rajputana Rifles

Ashutosh Rana

Yogender Singh, 1 8 Grenadiers

Karan Nath

Maj. Rajesh Adhikari, 18 Grenadiers

Raj Babbar

Col. Khushal Thakur, 1 8 Grenadiers

Mohnish Bahl

Lt Col. R. Vis wanathan, 1 8 Grenadiers

Sudesh Berry

Col. Lalit Rai, 1/1 1 Gurkha Rifles

Avtar Gill

Sub. Digendra Kumar, 2 Rajputana Rifles

Milind Gunaji

Maj. Rajesh Adhau, 13 JAK Rifles

Kiran Kumar

Col. Umesh Singh Bawa, 17 JAT

Bikram Saluja

Capt. Sanjeev Jamwal, 13 JAK Rifles

Ashish Vidyarthi

Col. MB Ravindranath, 2 Rajputana Rifles

Mukesh Tiwari

Lt. Col. Asthana, 1/1 1 Gurkha Rifles

Vineet Sharma

Captain Sachin Nimbalkar, commanding the Ghatak (deadly) column,
top.

was the first to reach the northeast side of the Tiger

Nagender
Choudhary

Captain Nagappa ,13 JAK Rifles

Arman Kohli

Singh Surendra

Actress

Role

Rani Mukerji

Hema (Manoj Pandey's love interest)

Raveena Tandon

Deepak's wife

Kareena Kapoor

Simran (Anuj Nayyar's love interest)

Preeti Jhangiani

Balwaan's love interest

Mahima Chaudhry

Reena Yadav

Esha Deol

Dimple (Vikram Batra's love interest)

Isha Koppikar

Rifleman Sanjay's fiancee

Divya Dutta

Yogendra Yadav's wife

Priya Gill

Charulatha (Acharya Padmapani's wife)

LOC Kargil

308

Namrata Shirodkar

YK Joshi's wife

Akanksha Malhotra
Maya Alagh

Kiran Adhikari (Rajesh Singh Adhikari's wife)
Manoj Pandey's mother

Soundtrack

#

Title

Singer(s)

1

"Pyar Bhare Geet"

Sonu Nigam, Shreya Ghoshal

2

"Main Kahin Bhi Rahoon"

Udit Narayan, Sonu Nigam, Roop Kumar Rathod, Hariharan, Sukhwinder Singh

3

"Ek Saathi Aur Bhi Tha"

Sonu Nigam

4

"Seemaaye Bulaaye"

Alka Yagnik

5

"Khush Rehna"

Roop Kumar Rathod

6

"Before We Forget (Instrumental)"

External links

• LOC Kargil at the Internet Movie Database

Deewaar (2004 film)

309

Deewaar (2004 film)

Deewaar

Directed by

Milan Luthria

Produced by

Gaurang Doshi

Screenplay by

Shridhar Raghavan
Milan Luthria

Starring

Amitabh Bachchan
Sanjay Dutt
Akshaye Khanna
Amrita Rao

Music by

Aadesh Shrivastav

Cinematography

Nirmal Jani

Editing by

Hozefa Lokhandwala

Distributed by

V. R. Pictures

Release date(s)

June 25, 2004

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Deewaar - Wall of War (Hindi: #m) is an Indian action film directed by Milan Luthria, while produced by Gaurang
Doshi and written by Anurag Kashyap. The film starred Amitabh Bachchan, Akshaye Khanna, Sanjay Dutt and
Amrita Rao in lead roles. Raghuvir Yadav, Kay Kay Menon and Tanuja had supporting roles. The film has nothing
to do with the 1975 film Deewaar, which also starred Bachchan.

Plot

Major Ranvir Kaul (Amitabh Bachchan) is a POW who was captured along with over 30 soldiers by Pakistani
soldiers in 1971 during the war between India and Pakistan. 33 years later Ranvir's son Gaurav (Akshaye Khanna)
decides to go on a rescue mission to Pakistan and bring back his father who he has not seen since he was a child.
Helping him on his mission is Khan (Sanjay Dutt) who had successfully escaped from the same prison. They steal,
kill, and plan to get the prisoners out.

Cast

Amitabh Bachchan .... Maj. Ranvir Kaul

Sanjay Dutt .... Khan

Akshaye Khanna .... Gaurav Kaul

Amrita Rao .... Radhika

Raghuvir Yadav .... Jata

Kay Kay Menon .... Sohail

Aditya Shrivastava ...

Rajendranath Zutshi

Akhilendra Mishra

Tanuja .... Ranvir Kaul's wife

Pradeep Rawat .... Baldev

Deewaar (2004 film)

310

• Arif Zakaria ... Raj an

• D. Santosh ... P.O.W. Raghu Jen

Music

Music for the film was composed by Aadesh Shrivastav. The lyrics were written by Nusrat Badr.

"Ali Ali", sung by Krishna Beura, Shraddha Pandit and Vijayta (5:57)

"Chaliye Va Chaliye", sung by Roop Kumar Rathod and Udit Narayan (5:56)

"Kara Kaga", sung by Alka Yagnik (4:19)

"Marhaba Marhaba", sung by Sonu Nigam and Xenia Ali (5:18)

"Piya Bawri", sung by Alka Yagnik and Kailash Kher (4:52)

"Todenge Deewaar Hum", sung by Mukul Agrawal and Udit Narayan (4:43)

Two remix versions of the songs were also recorded:

• "Marhaba Marhaba" (remix), sung by Sonu Nigam and Xenia Ali (5:18)

• "Piya Bawri" (instrumental) (4:52)

External links

• IndiaFM.com , review and miscellaneous info

• IMDb , Deewaar at the Internet Movie Database

Lakshya (film)

Lakshya

Theatrical release poster

Directed by

Farhan Akhtar

Produced by

Ritesh Sidhwani

Screenplay by

Javed Akhtar

Story by

Javed Akhtar

Starring

Hrithik Roshan
Preity Zinta

Music by

Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy

Cinematography

Christopher Popp

Editing by

Anand Subaya

Distributed by

Excel Entertainment

Release date(s)

June 18,2004

Running time

187 mins

Country

India

Language

Hindi

Budget

^32 crore (US$6.38 million) [1]

Box office

f 33.25 crore (US$6.63 million) [2]

Lakshya (film) 311

Lakshya (Hindi: d<w<; English: Target) is a 2004 Bollywood film directed by Farhan Akhtar, with stars Hrithik
Roshan, Preity Zinta, Amitabh Bachchan, Om Puri and Boman Irani. Roshan who plays the role of Lieutenant (later
Acting Captain) Karan Shergill, who leads his team (initially 12, falling to 6 members) to victory over the Pakistani
troops. It is actually a coming of age story of Roshan with fictionalized backdrop of 1999 Kargil Conflict. It
commercially received a below average status, but garnered positive reviews and has achieved the status of a cult
movie.

Plot

Karan Shergill(Hrithik Roshan) is a young man who has no goal or plans for his future. His father is a businessman,
his brother is a successful individual living in America. His girlfriend, Romi(Preity Zinta), a student activist and
reporter who espouses fashionable causes out of well-meaning sincerity, tells him he needs to find a goal in life.
When a friend announces he is going to join the Indian Military Academy, Karan applies as well, despite dissent
from his parents.

To his surprise, Karan gets selected(though his friend doesn't). But he is undisciplined and unused to the life there
and keeps getting into trouble. Upset, he runs away from the academy, which causes Romi to break up with him.
Karan finally comes to terms with his situation and makes his decision. He returns to the IMA, takes his punishment,
and becomes a focused, disciplined cadet leader, graduating as an officer Lieutenant Karan Shergill.

Karan is posted to the 3rd Battalion of the Punjab Regiment, commanded by Col.Sunil Damle( Amitabh Bachchan) in
the Kargil sector, and handles his responsibilities well. Karan comes home on leave and finds out that Romi is
getting engaged and goes to the ceremony to congratulate her. Karan is recalled to his post as his leave is cut short
due to outbreak of hostilities in Kargil.

He reports back to his post where he is promoted to the rank of Acting Captain. His battalion CO briefs the officers
on the latest situation. The battalion has been assigned to secure Point 5179, a crucial vantage point dominating the
army's main supply line, the NH1D. The first part of the assault is successful and battalion destroys the enemy's
screening units with Karan cited for his bravery in saving another officer's life. Meanwhile, Romi gets stationed as
war correspondent, where she meets a metamorphosized Karan.

Karan learns that Romi broke off her engagement. She tries to renew her relationship with him amidst the war, but
this time, Karan declines her. In the second phase of the assault Karan's unit engages in a failed attempt to storm and
capture the Pakistani strongholds on the mountain. The Pakistanis have the advantage due to their strategic position
and deal the unit heavy losses during the attack. Capt. Shergill and a group of 12 are next given orders to encircle the
enemy position and attack it from behind. To do this, they must scale a 1000-foot wall of rock. Karan realizes that he
has finally found his Lakshya(goal) in form of the wall.

After the unit sustains an attack in a grass field and loses their commanding officer, the remaining men scale the cliff
and attack the Pakistani stronghold during the night. The movie ends with Col.Damle looking out across the
mountains the next morning, to see an injured Capt. Karan hoisting the Indian flag atop the ruins of the stronghold.
Karan's father, who was sceptical and disapproving of him, is now proud of his son. Karan is given a leave following
his condition, whereupon he and Romi reunite.

Lakshya (film) 312

Cast

Hrithik Roshan as Capt. Karan Shergill

Preity Zinta as Romila Dutta

Amitabh Bachchan as Colonel Suneil Damle

Om Puri as Subedar Maj. Pritam Singh

Sharad Kapoor as Maj. Binod Sengupta

Raj Zutshi as Maj. Kaushal Verma

Sushant Singh as Captain Jalal Akbar

Parmeet Sethi as Pakistani Maj. Shahbaaz Humdani

Boman Irani as Karan's father

Lilette Dubey as Mrs. Dutta, Romila's mother

Sanjay Singh as Capt. Manjit Singh Dhingra

Aditya Srivastav as Lt. Colonel Pradeep

Amit Behl as Company Commander (I.M.A.)

Ranvir Shorey as Tarsem Singh

Kushal Punjabi as Raj Tilak Singh

Prashant Chainani as Capt. Vishal Srivastav

Shakeel Khan

Nawab Shah as Maj. Satish Babbar

Abir Goswami as Capt. (Dr.) Sudhir Mishra

Abhimanyu Shekhar Singh as Adjutant Major Pratap Singh

Ashok Kumar as Babulal

Surendra Pal as a Commandant (I.M.A.)

Parvin Dabbas

K K Raina

Amrish Puri as Brig. Gen. Gautam Puri (Special Appearance)

Boxoffice
India

The film made an impressive opening and finally grossed ^ 33.25 crore (US$6.63 million) at Indian box-office.

Overseas

Lakshya grossed $5,859,242 worldwide including $753,600 from North American markets and $5,105,642 from
other markets. In the U.S., the film had performed better, grossing $ 380,000 on 59 screens [approx. Rs. 1.75
crores] in its opening weekend. The per screen average is $ 6,440.

Soundtrack

The film's soundtrack has been composed by Shankar-Ehsaan-Loy, with lyrics by Javed Akhtar.

Lakshya (film)

313

Song

Singer(s)

Duration

Picturized On

Main Aisa Kyun Hoon

Shaan

4.34

Hrithik Roshan

Agar Main Kahoon

Udit Narayan, Alka Yagnik

4.52

Hrithik Roshan, Preity
Zinta

Kitni Baatein

Hariharan, Sadhana Sargam

5.47

Hrithik Roshan, Preity
Zinta

Lakshya

Shankar Mahadevan

6.15

Hrithik Roshan

Kandhon Se Milte Hain
Kandhe

Kunal Ganjawala, Sonu Nigam
Shankar Mahadevan

Roop Kumar Rathod, Vijay Prakash, Hariharan,

5.40

Hrithik Roshan

Separation

Instrumental

2.29

Hrithik Roshan, Preity
Zinta

Kitni Baatein (Reprise)

Hariharan, Sadhana Sargam

4.11

Victory

Instrumental

3.20

Hrithik Roshan

Professional ratings

Review scores

Source

Rating

Bollywood Hungama

[7]
• ••*•

Planet Bollywood

[8]
*•••••*•*•

The reception to the soundtrack ranged from mixed to positive. Joginder Tutja of Bollywood Hungama in his review,
said "Lakshya does have good music that is very urban and will appeal to the class audience. Going by the theme of
the movie, the album is pretty balanced and has been composed with style that speaks of class." Planet Bollywood
found the album to be as good as Dil Chahta Hai. Subhash K. Jha described the album as daringly unusual sound
with a show-offy kind of innovativeness

[9]

Sukanya Verma of Rediff however, remarked that, though the album was good, it was below expectations and
lacked punch

[10]

2004 Filmfare Awards

Wins

Best Cinematographer - Christopher Popp
Best Choreography - Prabhu Deva Sundaram

Nominations

• Best Actor - Hrithik Roshan

• Best Director - Farhan Akhtar

• Best Story - Javed Akhtar

Lakshya (film) 314

References

[1] Lakshya goes off target at the BO (http://articles.economictimes.indiatimes.com/2004-06-25/news/

27371745_l_box-office-wider-release-weekend-collections/)
[2] Box Office 2004 (http://www.boxofficeindia.com/showProd.php ?itemCat=210&catName=MjAwNA==/)
[3] Lakshya hits the jackpot at the BO! (http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/jun/22box.htm/)
[4] http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lakshya.htm

[5] Box office: "Lakshya" overseas (http://www.sify.com/movies/box-office-lakshya-overseas-news-bollywood-kkfvLaifefb.html/)
[6] "Lakshya : Soundtrack listing and details" (http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/audiolisting/7151/index.html).

Bollywoodhungama.com. 2004-06-18. . Retrieved 2011-06-29.
[7] "Lakshya : Music Review by Joginder Tuteja" (http://www.bollywoodhungama.com/movies/musicreview/7151/index.html).

Bollywoodhungama.com. . Retrieved 2011-06-29.
[8] "Bollywood - Music Review - Lakshya" (http://www.planetbollywood.com/Music/Lakshya/). Planetbollywood.com. 2004-04-22. .

Retrieved 201 1-06-29.
[9] "Lakshya Music Review, Indian Movie Lakshya Music Review, Lakshya movie Music Review, Bollywood movie Music Review" (http://

www.nowrunning.com/movie/1339/bollywood.hindi/lakshya/540/music.review.htm). Nowrunning.com. 2004-04-30. . Retrieved

2011-06-29.
[10] "'Lakshya' needs more punch" (http://www.rediff.com/movies/2004/apr/261akshya.htm). Rediff.com. . Retrieved 2012-02-27.

External links

• Lakshya (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0323013/) at the Internet Movie Database

• Lakshya (http://www.boxofficemojo.com/movies/?id=lakshya.htm) at Box Office Mojo

1971 (film)

315

1971 (film)

1971

Directed by

Amrit Sagar

Produced by

Amrit Sagar
Moti Sagar

Written by

Piyush Mishra (Screenplay &

Dialogue)

Amrit Sagar

Starring

Manoj Bajpai
Ravi Kishan
Chitaranjan Giri
Kumud Mishra
Manav Kaul
Deepak Dobriyal
Piyush Mishra
Vivek Mishra

Music by

Akash Sagar

Cinematography

Chirantan Das

Editing by

Shyam K. Salgonkar

Release date(s)

9 March 2007

Running time

160 min

Country

India

Language

Hindi

1971 is a 2007 Hindi war film directed by Amrit Sagar, and written by Piyush Mishra and Amrit Sagar, based on a
true story of prisoners of war after the Indo-Pak war of 1971. The film features an ensemble cast of Manoj Bajpai,
Ravi Kishan, Piyush Mishra, Deepak Dobriyal and others. At the National Film Award, it won the National Film
Award for Best Feature Film in Hindi

The film is an account of the escape of six soldiers of the Indian Army taken as prisoners of war by Pakistan Army,
during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Plot summary
The Camp

The story takes place in Pakistan in 1977, six years after the 1971 Indo-Pakistan War. The scene opens to show a
POW camp at an undisclosed location in Pakistan. Indian soldiers are holding a morning parade. As the Pakistanis
Major Karamat and Colonel Sheriar Khan walk by, the Indians turn their backs on them in a gesture of disrespect.
The cause for this disrespect is soon known as we see the Indian Major Suraj Singh (Manoj Bajpai) being called out
of barrack Number 6 for interrogation by the Pakistanis. He is from the 18 Rajputana Rifles and was caught in the
Uri sector in December 1971 as he ran out of ammunition. Before being brought to this camp, he was held in Kot
Lakhpat, Lahore, where he was punished twice for attempting to escape. Now, he was put in barrack Number 6 as
punishment for a third attempt. Colonel Sheriar Khan taunts him as to the condition of his fellow POWs in the
barracks and asks him who else aided him in his escape attempt. Major Suraj Singh refuses to reveal his
accomplices, and is sent back to barrack Number 6 for a few more days. He has already spent three days there.

7977 (film) 316

We see some of the other POWs; Captain Kabir (Kumud Mishra), Captain Jacob (Ravi Kishan) and Pali discussing
the camp in general. They wonder why the Indians, who were so far held in various jails all over Pakistan, have been
brought to this camp. They take note of the fact that the camp is well-facilitated and that they are receiving good
treatment as POWs. We also see Karamat and Khan discussing the inmates of barrack Number 6. The inmates are
Indian POWs from the 1965 and 1971 wars who have lost their sanity. This is Major Suraj Singh's punishment; to be
imprisoned in this part of the POW camp. Out of magnanimityColonel Sheriar Khan orders that Suraj be released the
next morning.

Arrival Of More POWs

The next morning, an army truck is driving towards the camp. This truck has a few more Indian POWs. This group
includes Flight Lieutenant Ram (Manav Kaul), Flight Lieutenant Gurtu (Deepak Dobriyal) and Colonel Puri. The
Flight Lieutenants, being youngsters, are of a bright disposition, and look for something or the other to be cheerful
about despite their being captive. When the truck stops at a side road and the POWs are allowed to relieve
themselves, Ram and Gurtu contemplate the idea of jumping into the valley and running away. Then, they give up
the idea, as they are too weak to do so. For consolation, they steal a guard's wallet and get a Pakistani army ID card.

They reach the camp and are introduced to the other inmates already present. No one has any idea as to the reason
they were taken there.

Hope Against Hope

Major Suraj Singh and his men, especially Captain Kabir, Captain Jacob and Subedar Ahmed, keep their own spirits
alive by caring for the broken souls in barrack Number 6, and by remembering their own kin back home. No matter
how good the facilities in the camp, they are still prisoners and they hope to return home someday.

By asking the guards a few innocuous questions and putting their answers together, the POWs realize that they are in
a place less than 200 km from the Indo-Pak border. (The place, it is revealed later, is Chaklala.) When Colonel Puri
is told of this and the idea of an escape is put forward, he overrules it. His reasons are that perhaps they will finally
be repatriated and that a failed attempt could result in all of them being killed.

The Reason

A jail in Multan is being examined by a joint delegation of the International Red Cross Society and the Pakistan
Human Rights Commission. They are accompanied by some Indian ladies who claim that their kin are held prisoner.
Their proof is that letters written by their missing kin bear the addresses of Pakistani jails. The women are being
shown around by Colonel Shakoor, and they are distraught to see no trace of their loved ones here. The head of the
Human Rights Commission, Sabeena Jahangir, signs a document stating that they are satisfied with the results of the
search.

Here we understand the reason why the Indian POWs were brought to Chaklala: The Pakistani military/government
bowed to international pressure and allowed the delegation to examine the jails. The POWs has to be hidden away in
a secret camp for the duration of the delegation's visit in Pakistan.

The Repatriation And The Realization

Colonel Shakoor arrives at the Chaklala camp; he informs Colonel Puri and Major Singh that all the POWs will be
repatriated. He also says that as there are some formalities to be fulfilled, they will have to remain there for nearly
two months. The POWs are further informed that the same night they will be treated to an open-air screening of a
recent popular movie followed by a banquet. Major Singh, Captain Kabir and Subedar Ahmed are distrustful of
Colonel Shakoor's words, although the other prisoners celebrate their imminent return home.

7977 (film) 317

That night, while the movie is being screened, Ahmed steals a newspaper from an army jeep and calls Major Singh
and Captains Kabir and Jacob into the barracks. From reading the newspaper, they learn that General Zia Ul-Haq has
overthrown Zulfikar Ali Bhutto in a military coup and formed a new government. Further, General Zia has stated
that all Indian soldiers who were taken prisoner so far have been returned and, as proof, he has allowed the
International Red Cross Society to inspect the Pakistani jails. Since no POW was found, General Zia has reasserted
the Pakistani government's innocence in this matter. The four soldiers now understand the reason why they were
taken to this camp. Also, that they were being provided with good facilities so that they would not think of escaping.
Then, they realize that they are being overheard and discover that the eavesdroppers are Ram and Gurtu. They
overpower them and are about to thrash the two, when the Flight Lieutenants inform them that they too wish to
escape to India. They prove their willingness by producing the ID card they had stolen earlier.

The First Steps

The six soldiers decide to escape, and they must waste no time. They take two steps the same night. First, they
request the Pakistanis for a group photo. This request is granted. Second, at the dinner, Ahmed attempts to strike
Jacob, for which he is punished by Colonel Puri the next morning. When Ahmed refuses to bear out his punishment,
Colonel Puri wishes to court-martial him. The POWs ask for the use of a barrack to serve as a courtroom, a request
that is also granted.

The Pakistanis are preparing to celebrate the Pakistani Independence Day (14 August) by having a song performance
by Ms. Sultana Khanum, a ghazal singer. The Indians, who wish to celebrate the Indian Independence Day (15
August), ask for fresh uniforms, paints to make an Indian flag and jaggery for making a sweet drink. The Pakistanis
grant them all their requests in order to keep them pacified.

While the court martial is going on, Ram and Gurtu combine the paints to dye the uniforms in the colours of the
Pakistani Army. Maj. Karamat is presiding over the court martial. Here, with Kabir as the prosecutor and Suraj as the
defense, the would-be escapees impress upon Karamat that Puri hates Ahmed simply because he is a Muslim. This
prompts Karamat into starting the proceedings to implant Ahmed as a spy in the Indian Army.

Initial Success

While Karamat is interviewing Ahmed to offer sending him back to India so that he can spy for the Pakistanis, Kabir
and Jacob stealthily make their way to the camp periphery. They trigger the alarm and run back into the camp before
they can be seen. The guards conclude that it must have been triggered by a wild animal. At this, Karamat switches
off the alarm from the electricity room adjacent to his own office. Ahmed follows him like a dimwitted man and sees
the location of the switch.

As Ahmed's repatriation formalities are being fulfilled, he manages to steal from Karamat's office the accessories and
insignia that are present on Pakistani uniforms. Ahmed also learns that the electricity room houses the
communications line and the power generator. He passes on this information to Suraj Singh and the others (Kabir,
Jacob, Ram and Gurtu).

The plan is to create a stampede on the night of 14 August and escape under the pretext of escorting the ghazal
singer out of the camp. But to cause a stampede, they need to detonate a bomb. For this, Ram and Gurtu go on a
pickpocketing spree and bring back to Jacob (an explosives and topography expert) a lot of matchboxes. They
remove the phosphorus heads of the matchsticks and make a crude bomb out of the combined match-heads. They
intend to throw this bomb into the ammunitions room to create a blast. Once the bomb is ready, they tie it to the
lower side of the floorboards to hide it.

The group photograph has been given to Colonel Puri. To steal it from him, Ram and Gurtu make an alcoholic drink
out of the jaggery and soon many of the POWs are drunk. Colonel Puri is too drunk to notice the real reason behind
the drinking session. The photo is stolen. Out of this, the face of Suraj Singh is cut out and stuck onto the stolen ID
card.

7977 (film) 318

The fake Pakistani uniforms are ready. So are the bomb and the ID card. The six men just have to wait for the song
performance before starting their action. At this point, Suraj tells the others that the real intent of the mission is to
alert the Indian authorities of the presence of Indian POWs in Pakistan. He also tells them that one or more of them
may die while escaping and that their only consolation will be that they will have died as escapees instead of as
prisoners.

The Breakout

While the floor is being cleaned with water that morning, the bomb gets soaked, but the escape team does not know
this. As 14 August dawns, the six men wear two layers of uniforms; the Indian uniforms on top of the Pakistani ones.
By evening, the ghazal singer is ready to give her song performance.

The senior Pakistani officers, including Shakoor and Karamat, are among the audience. The Indian POWs are
allowed to sit as a separate audience to enjoy the songs. As the performance begins, Jacob and Kabir sneak away
from the main POW group at separate times. Ahmed goes into Karamat's office, telling the guard that the Major has
asked for his jacket. Once inside, he knocks the guard unconscious and through a side door lets in Kabir, who has
changed into his Pakistani uniform. He goes into the electricity room to disconnect the communication lines and
power lines. He cuts the communication lines first, then, as per the plan, he must wait for the blast before he can cut
the power line.

Jacob reaches the crude bomb and realizes that it is now soaked. He tells Ahmed, who is now by his side, that the
mission must be called off. Then he rushes off to stop Suraj. However, before Ahmed can stop Kabir, he impatiently
cuts the power line, plunging the camp in darkness. Ahmed does the last thing left to him to save his friends. He runs
to the ammunitions room, forces his way in, locks himself in and primes one of the grenades. In the few seconds
before the blast, he closes his eyes and thinks of his family; his aged parents, his wife and his daughter whom he has
never seen and who would now be six. The room blows up into a ball of fire.

The remaining five men carry out the plan as conceived. There is a stampede and a general confusion as the soldiers
attempt to put out the fire. Suraj and his men escort the ghazal singer out of the camp in an army truck. A few
Pakistani soldiers already inside the truck become their unwitting captives. The Indians are no longer POWs, they
are now soldiers on a mission.

The Aftermath

At the camp, the Pakistani guards take a head count of the prisoners and, seeing six of them missing, including Suraj
Singh, discover that an escape has taken place. They try to locate the truck escorting Sultana Khanum. They also
alert Major Bilal Mallik (Piyush Mishra), who is in charge of a helicopter, to help in their search.

Meanwhile, the escape truck has gone on a highway to Abbottabad. At a lonely spot, the escapees decide to get rid of
their captives. One of them tries to rush his captors and in a scuffle shoots Jacob in the stomach. Suraj and Kabir
shoot the Pakistani dead. Jacob lies to his comrades, saying that the bullet has just grazed him. The escapees relieve
the Pakistani soldiers of their weapons and wallets and knock them unconscious. They also hide the body of the dead
soldier. They are about to render Sultana unconscious, when she says that she was once the head of the Pakistan
Human Rights Commission. She says that she was aware of the Red Cross raids across Pakistan in search of the
Indian POWs. She is sympathetic to the plight of the POWs and promises to misguide the search party if she is left
unharmed. In a touching line, she says to Suraj, "Hamaare mulk se thhoda yakeen hee lekar jaao." ("If nothing else,
at least take home some trust from our country.")

7977 (film) 319

The Night

The escapees are in a different truck now. They remember the blast at the camp and understand that it was done by
Ahmed. They have gone off the highway to Abbottabad and are on another one, which leads to Muzaffarabad. The
search party, including Major Mallik, has reached the escape truck, where they find Sultana Khanum, who has been
left unharmed. She says that the escapees were in plain clothes and were talking of going towards Islamabad. The
searchers believe her and arrange for her to be sent to her home. However, Major Mallik notices that the military
map is missing from the truck's dashboard. When he asks Colonel Shakoor if the escapees were in any way
connected to the army, Shakoor answers that it does not matter and that the escaped prisoners have to be brought
back. In the meanwhile, the Chaklala camp is hurriedly closed and the Indian POWs are moved out of there.

Major Mallik separates from the search party and heads out in his chopper to cover the highway to Muzaffarabad. At
a checkpoint, the escapees, led by Suraj Singh, gain access with the help of the fake ID card. Suraj asks the guard the
reason for the checkpoint and is told that there is a search on for six fugitives. From this, he understands that the
Pakistanis do not want it to be known that the fugitives are actually POWs.

Sultana Khanum phones Sabeena Jahangir from a wayside hotel and informs her of the presence of Indian POWs in
a camp in Chaklala. She says that she is ready to provide testimony to that effect.

By early dawn, the searchers converge at the military hospital in Abbottabad to glean information from the injured
soldiers. Here, Colonel Sheriar Khan and Major Azzam Baig berate Major Karamat and Colonel Shakoor for letting
the escape take place. When Major Mallik asks if the escapees are Indian POWs, they grudgingly tell him the truth,
and he agrees to maintain the secrecy of the search. They then talk to an injured soldier, who tells them about the
preparedness of the fugitives. When the soldier mentions that they even have an ID card, Major Mallik realizes that
he had actually seen them passing through the checkpoint on the highway to Muzaffarabad. The searchers prepare to
go there.

The Wild Chase At Muzaffarabad

On the morning of 15 August, the escapees arrive at Muzaffarabad. The truck-driver goes on his way, and the
soldiers check into a hotel. Once inside the hotel room, Suraj instructs Ram and Gurtu to purchase some necessary
medical items from the local stores. He then asks Jacob to plot out an escape route on the map they took off the first
escape truck. He charts out a route going up to Baramulla, India. This route avoids the main highway and goes
through hills and villages. The last twenty kilometres have to be covered on foot, because the heavy snowfall makes
it impossible for any vehicle to pass. Jacob then collapses and the others realize that he was not merely grazed by the
bullet, but that his gunshot wound was life threatening. Kabir holds him tightly while Suraj attempts to remove the
bullet from his stomach.

Meanwhile, in the town, while Ram and Gurtu are purchasing medicines and painkillers for Jacob, Ram notices a
military convoy approaching. The search party is here. He and Gurtu run to the hotel to warn the others. Although
they were not seen by the searchers, the place is soon swarming with soldiers. In the hotel room, Jacob finds the pain
unbearable and reaches for a pistol. Ram and Gurtu reach the room just in time to see him shoot himself in the head.
Although the four men are stunned, they have no time to waste. They cover Jacob in a blanket, take the map and the
bags, and flee through the window.

As they run through the side streets of the town, the Pakistanis are on their heels. When the fugitives reach the main
street, they have to hide behind a truck as it is crowded with soldiers led by Colonel Shakoor. They cannot remain
behind the truck for long, because the column of soldiers chasing them is getting closer. Then Ram spots a
motorbike, he tells Suraj and the others to be ready to take it. Before they can stop him, he runs into Colonel
Shakoor's view, shoots his guard and runs into a side-lane. As the soldiers run after him, the fugitives hide
themselves under the tarpaulin of another truck, thereby escaping notice by the column that was chasing them. This
column joins the other soldiers in the chase. As a straggler is attempting to start the motorbike, the escapees (Suraj,
Kabir and Gurtu) run out of their hiding place, beat him unconscious and ride away on it.

1971 (film) 320

Ram has taken control of an army jeep after killing a few soldiers, including Major Azzam Baig. He too has
sustained a few bullet injuries, and is now leading the Pakistanis away from his friends. He now has only one pistol
and one grenade for weapons. He leads the soldiers out of the town as far away as he can. The chasing convoy is led
by Colonel Shakoor, who is berating his men to drive faster. Major Mallik is in the second jeep. Suddenly, Major
Suraj Singh turns in from a dirt road and is riding next to the leading jeep. Colonel Shakoor stares into the faces of
Suraj, Gurtu and Kabir. The jeep driver's face registers terror as he sees Kabir priming a grenade. Kabir lobs the
grenade into the jeep as Suraj picks up speed and races away. In the next few seconds, the convoy comes to a
standstill and Colonel Shakoor leaps out of his jeep. He runs a few steps and throws himself flat on the ground. The
jeep explodes as the Indians race away. A stunned Major Mallik is unable to believe his eyes. The expression on his
face sums up the scene: he did not expect the Indians to pull off a move like that.

The Sacrifice

The men on the bike catch up with Ram, who is relieved to see them safe. Gurtu asks innocently, "Listen, sir, is this
the road to Delhi?" then tells him to watch where he is driving. But their victory is short-lived as they are attacked by
a truck coming from the opposite direction. Although Kabir and Gurtu manage to shoot the driver of the truck and
the shooters in its front, Suraj is forced to divert the bike into a ditch. Ram stops the jeep and watches his friends
careening wildly downslope. They hit a rock and the bike cartwheels, then lands on Kabir's right leg. As the bike
slides down the slope, it drags him with it. Suraj and Gurtu are lucky to survive with only a few scratches.

Ram is shot by the soldiers who are climbing out of the back of the truck. Gurtu is climbing upslope to rush to his aid
with a furious Suraj attempting to stop him. Ram, still alive, sees the scene: Shakoor and Mallik have caught up and
are driving towards him, the soldiers from the truck ahead are running towards him, and Gurtu and Suraj are
dangerously close to revealing their position in the ditch. He quickly turns his jeep around and, with the soldiers still
running after him, drives straight at Shakoor's vehicle. Mallik, seated next to Shakoor, orders the driver to stop and
reverse. He is sure that Ram is playing a fresh new trick, while Shakoor wants to get closer to Ram so that he can
shoot him dead. Ram slams into them at high speed, causing serious injury to Shakoor, the soldiers in Shakoor's
truck and to himself. Shakoor, who is now unconscious, is laid on the ground as Mallik orders for an ambulance.
Mallik then walks to Ram's jeep to see what he was trying to do.

Ram is bleeding profusely, he has a few breaths' worth of life left in him and he has primed a grenade. When Mallik
sees the grenade, he shouts a warning for everyone to run away. As they all run away from the jeep, Mallik leading
them, it explodes. In the ditch, Suraj and Gurtu see the explosion. Suraj covers Gurtu's mouth so that his cries cannot
be heard by the men on the road. They watch the jeep and the truck go up in flames, then Suraj forcibly turns Gurtu
around and they come back to the motorbike, which has Kabir still partially pinned underneath it. The blast has
claimed many lives, including Colonel Shakoor's. As Mallik directs the rescue, Colonel Sheriar Khan catches up.
Simultaneously, the fugitives get the bike upright and drive away.

The Intervention

While Mallik and Khan are directing the rescue, Sabeena Jahangir arrives there with the Red Cross delegates and
questions Khan as to his lies regarding the Indian POWs. Mallik explains that this blast was the result of an accident
involving two vehicles and that they are in no way connected to the POW issue. They go to the Muzaffarabad base,
where in a closed room, Colonel Sheriar Khan is informed on the phone that a delegate has been sent to recall
Sabeena Jahangir. When he expresses disbelief and frustration that the POW matter is now known, Mallik tells him
that catching the POWs is now difficult. He says that in addition to being highly motivated, they are also military
experts. He mentions Ram's suicide bombing of the trucks as proof of how far they are willing to go. But until the
arrival of the delegate, he says, Colonel Sheriar Khan must keep Jahangir pacified. When Khan attempts to tell
Jahangir that there is a misunderstanding regarding the accident and the blast, she says that the occurrence of one
blast at Chaklala and within one day another one at Muzaffarabad is highly suspicious. She alleges that the Pakistani

7977 (film) 321

military have deceived the Red Cross and the Pakistani public by lying that there are no Indian POWs in the country.
Just then, the High Commission delegate arrives and shows Jahangir an order to vacate the area immediately. She
glares at Mallik and Khan, then leaves with her colleagues. As soon as she is gone, the soldiers spring into action
resuming their search.

Saluting Fallen Comrades

However, this intervention has bought off valuable time for the escapees. They have gone on the route marked by
Jacob and reached the point from where they have to go by foot. The bike is anyway out of petrol. While Suraj Singh
throws the bike down a mountainside, Gurtu has leaned Kabir against a tree and is making three mounds in the snow;
one for each man who died on this mission. Seeing this, Suraj points out that they sacrificed their lives for their
battle, so they must be respected as martyrs. He, Kabir and Gurtu stand up and salute this memorial. Then, they walk
on into the snow, Kabir being held up by the others.

The Cold Night

The Indian soldiers have reached a point where they must stop and wait until dark before resuming their journey.
They risk being caught if they go any further while there is still light. Suraj and Gurtu tie a splint improvised out of
twigs onto Kabir's fractured leg.

By nightfall, the Pakistanis have reached a stream where they retrieve the bike that was thrown down the mountain.
Khan and Mallik disagree in their conclusions. While Khan is certain that the fugitives have died and that their
bodies should be lying close by, Mallik thinks that they could have thrown the bike down the mountainside and
continued on foot. Khan berates Mallik for overestimating the fugitives. Mallik steps aside, and while Khan
continues the search in the vicinity, gives voice to his own thoughts: "When the bloody war was over, there was
never any need to detain these soldiers. Not only have we incurred the curses of their kin, we have also created a
nuisance for ourselves. If I say this aloud, I will be declared a traitor. If I don't, then this Pakistani conscience of
mine will torment me for life."

Suraj awakens Gurtu and Kabir to continue their journey. Kabir is not able to move his leg. Suraj removes the shoe
on his injured leg only to see that it has turned black. Kabir says that it is frostbite and that it will climb up his body.
However, when he requests to be left behind, Suraj will not hear of it. He carries Kabir bodily on his back, and their
trek continues. They can do nothing but walk on. They keep themselves sane by exchanging little jokes and talking
about their hometowns. When Suraj stumbles under Kabir's weight, Kabir points out that this way a two-hour
journey will stretch to six hours. Suraj will again hear none of it. Sometime later, Kabir tells Suraj that he respects
him more than he would respect his own father. Suraj replies that in the army a senior officer is like a father anyway.

Unparalleled Heroism

It is dawn. The three soldiers have stopped to rest by the side of a path winding through the mountains. Kabir and
Gurtu are asleep; Suraj is sitting huddled next to them. He sees something far below him in the valley. He rises, then
wakes up Gurtu and asks him to take a look. They strain their eyes. They cannot believe what they are seeing. It is an
Indian army outpost with the Indian Flag raised above it. They cheer, scream, and laugh in jubilation. But when
Gurtu tries to rouse Kabir, he falls limply to one side. He is dead. With nothing else left to do, Suraj and Gurtu bury
Kabir in the snow and walk on towards the Indian side of the border. It is about a few hundred yards away.

Suddenly they hear the sound of a helicopter. It carries Colonel Sheriar Khan and Major Bilal Mallik. As Khan fires
at them with a machine gun, Mallik cautions him that they are too close to the Line Of Control (LOC). As Suraj and
Gurtu attempt to run, they end up taking a few bullet wounds. Gurtu is shot in his leg, which disables him from
standing up. The Indian soldiers at the outpost, who see the helicopter, think that the Pakistanis are starting a
skirmish. They get ready to fire a rocket.

1971 (film) 322

Gurtu crawls into a rock alcove and asks Suraj to proceed alone without him. Suraj replies that he has no family back
home in India and that if he reaches home he will do so with his companions. Suraj then says that they must survive
for the sake of their comrades who died in the escape and for the sake of those who are still prisoners. Meanwhile,
Mallik mutinies against Khan and orders the pilot to turn the chopper around. The Indians fire a rocket at the
chopper. As the helicopter turns around and flies away behind the mountains, the rocket explodes harmlessly on a
mountainside. On the ground, Gurtu is unable to walk, so Suraj seats him against a rock. He promises to bring help
from the Indian side.

Major Suraj Singh calls out to the Indians, but he has been a prisoner for six years. As he calls for help, his voice
stammers and fails many times. The Indians simply do not or cannot hear him. Then suddenly gunshots are heard
and Suraj collapses. A column of Pakistani soldiers is running towards the two fugitives. Suraj is shot badly. The
Indian soldiers rush to their defensive positions. As Gurtu is still recovering from the shock, Suraj struggles to his
feet. He tells Gurtu that he will be back with help even before the Pakistanis arrive. He is still the father figure his
men loved him for being. The Pakistanis are rushing on, screaming obscenities. Suraj runs towards the Indian
outpost. As the Pakistanis fire at him, the Indians, thinking that a skirmish is on, fire back at the Pakistanis. This pins
them down considerably so their firing on Suraj does not have much effect. Then the Indian officer sees Suraj
through his binoculars and orders his men to stop firing as he realizes that the Pakistanis were chasing a fugitive.
Then the Pakistanis are able to come out into the open and fire at Suraj. He nevertheless runs as hard as he can.
There is an explosion close to his feet, probably a land mine, and he is thrown forward to the ground by the force of
the blast.

Gurtu is looking at Suraj over the distance. His face has a look of peace. Suraj has reached the Indian side. He slowly
stands up and looks ahead. He is home. He looks at the soldiers and at the flag above them. He is too overcome by
emotion to say even a word. The Indians see a man in Pakistani army uniform before them. Suraj raises his right
hand as if reaching for the flag. Then the Pakistanis fire one shot, which goes through Suraj's heart. He falls to the
ground and dies.

The Pakistani soldiers have reached the border. Khan and Mallik make their way to their head. The Indian officer
shouts a question across the no-man's-land, asking what the matter is. Khan replies that the dead fugitive was a
deserter from the Pakistani army who was court-martialled and had killed two civilians while escaping. He asks the
Indians to search the dead man for an ID card, which should confirm his identity. The Indians find on Suraj's person
the fake ID card, which had got him through the Pakistani check post. The officer grants permission for the
Pakistanis to take away the corpse and warns them to be careful in future. As Suraj's body is dragged back to the
Pakistani side, Mallik removes his beret in a gesture of respect to the man who, in his own way, did reach his
country.

Epilogue

It is now 2007. The place is Multan Jail in Pakistan. We see an old man walking in the prison compound. He has
made five little mounds of earth and he is putting a few flowers on them. He sits on the ground next to them and
leafs through what was once Major Suraj Singh's prison diary. This old man is Gurtu. He now has only two motives
in his life: to hope to return home and to keep alive the memory of his five friends.

The screen now blurs, and a Voice over informs us that there are still 83 Indian POW's of the 1971 and the 1965
Indo Pak wars who are languishing in Pakistani Jails. They were last seen alive in 1983

7977 (film) 323

Cast

Manoj Bajpai as Major Suraj Singh

Ravi Kishan as Capt. Jacob

Piyush Mishra as Maj. Bilal Malik

Deepak Dobriyal as Flight Lt. Gurtu

Chittaranjan Giri as Ahmed

Manav Kaul as Flight Lt. Ram

Kumud Mishra as Capt. Kabir

Gyan Prakash as Col. Puri

Maj. Bikramjeet Singh as Col. Shakoor

Sanjeev Wilson as Maj. Azzam baig

Satyajit Sharma as Commander of the Indian checkpost

References

[1] "55th NATIONAL FILM AWARDS FOR THE YEAR 2007" (http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2009/sep/r2009090707.pdf). Press
Information Bureau (Govt, of India). Archived (http://web.archive.Org/web/20091007125534/http://pib.nic.in/archieve/others/2009/
sep/r2009090707.pdf) from the original on 7 October 2009. . Retrieved 8 September 2009.

External links

7977 (http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0983990/) at the Internet Movie Database

A Review of 1971 (http://www.indiafm.com/movies/review/12723/index.html)

1971 - Review (http://entertainment.oneindia.in/bollywood/reviews/2007/1971reviewl20307.html)

1971 - Preview (http://www.nowrunning.com/movie/3769/bollywood.hindi/1971/preview.htm)

1 97 1 Review (http ://w w w . indiaglitz . com/channels/hindi/re vie w/902 1 . html)

Kurukshetra (2008 film)

324

Kurukshetra (2008 film)

Kurukshetra

Directed by

Major Ravi

Produced by

Santhosh Damodar

Written by

Major Ravi

Starring

Mohanlal
Biju Menon
Sania Singh
Anjana Chandran

Music by

Sidharth Vipin

Studio

Damor Cinemas

Release date(s)

October 8, 2008

Language

Malayalam

Kurukshetra is a 2008 Malayalam film written and directed by Major Ravi and starring Mohanlal.

It is a sequel to the 2006 movie Keerthi Chakra and the second in the Major Mahadevan series. The movie was a hit

at the box office

[1][2]

Kurukshetra was Mohanlal's second film with director Major Ravi. Other main actors in the film included Biju
Menon, Anil Murali, Suraj Venjaramood, Cochin Haneefa, Anjana Chandran, Arjun and Sania Singh. The film is
based on the 1999 kargil war between India and Pakistan. The political situation of the conflict is portrayed from an
Indian perspective in the film. It brings out the majestic and courageous effort of the brave soldiers in the war.
Mohanlal was awarded with Lt.colonel title for brilliant performance and the efforts he took for that. The film
involved shooting in the high altitudes of kargil. The film is directed br Maj.ravi who is a former soldier.

The series' third part, Kandahar (starring Mohanlal and Amitabh Bachchan), was released in December 2010 in four
languages.

Cast

Actor

Role

Mohanlal

Colonel Mahadevan

Siddeeq

Fussy Ahmed

Biju Menon

Major Rajesh

Sania Singh

Cochin Haneefa

Bineesh Kodiyeri

Sukumari

Suraj Venjaramoodu

Pradeep Chandran

Anjana Chandran

Major Ravi

Cameo

Kurukshetra (2008 film)

325

Soudtrack

Kurukshetra

Soundtrack album by Sidharth Vipin
Released 2008

Genre
Label

Film
Manorama Music

Producer

Santhosh Damodar

The movie have four songs composed by debutant Sidharth Vipin and lyrics by Gireesh Puthenchery and Bombay S.
Kamal (Chalo Chalo).

Track

Song Title

Singer(s)

1

Jwalamukhi

Najim Arshad, Aran Gopan, Roshan, Nithin Raj

2

Oru Yathramozhiyode

M. G. Sreekumar, Swetha

3

Thathamma

Najim Arshad, Aran Gopan, Roshan, Nithin Raj

4

Chalo Chalo Jawan

Kailash Kher

5

Oru Yathramozhiyode

Swetha

6

Jwalamukhi

Intrumental

References

[1] http://www.sify. com/movies/Top-5-Stars-at-the-Box-Office-imagegallery-malayalam-jdwmUtibbac.html?html=5
[2] http://ibnlive.in.com/news/mohanlal-wants-to-join-territorial-army/77204-8.html

External links

• Kurukshetra (http://www.imdb.com/title/ttl309592/) at the Internet Movie Database

326

Miniseries/Dramas (Pakistani)

Angar Wadi

Angar Wadi (Urdu: ^\ 5 jl&l) is a Pakistani television play/drama. It was aired by PTV in 1994, comprises on 15
episodes. It was directed by Tariq Mairaj, written and produced by Abdul Rauf Khalid.

Plot

Angar Wadi was an Urdu language drama, its English meaning is Valley of Fire. It was totally based on the situation
of Kashmir.

Cast

Atiqa Odho
Hasam Qazi
Nisar Qadri
Rauf Khalid
Samina Ahmad
Navid Naqvi
Fareedullah
Shagufta Ali
Qavi Khan
Khayyam Sarhadi

References

[1] "Angar Wadi at Pakistan TV Drama" (http://www.pakistanitvdrama.com/category/ptv/angaar-wadi/). . Retrieved August 13, 201 1.
[2] APP November 25, 2011 (2011-11-25). "Prominent writer, actor, Rauf Khalid dies inroad accident I Entertainment" (http://www.dawn.
com/2011/11/25/prominent-writer-actor-rauf-khalid-dies-in-road-accident.html). Dawn. Com. . Retrieved 2012-01-15.

External links

• Angar Wadi (http://www.facebook.com/pages/Angar-Wadi/335256835200) at the Facebook

• Watch: Angar Wadi (http://media.lashmusic.com/angar-wadi-ptv-classic-drama)

Laag (TV series) 327

Laag (TV series)

Laag (Urdu: dY) is a Pakistani drama series which was run by PTV between 1995-2000. Its story was based on the
issue of Kashmir and mostly shooted in Kashmir. This was written, directed and produced by Abdul Rauf Khalid.

Story

It details how the local Kashmiri population is incited towards terrorism against India by extremists and insurgents
from Pakistan.

References

[1] APP November 25, 2011 (2011-11-25). "Prominent writer, actor, Rauf Khalid dies inroad accident I Entertainment" (http://www.dawn.
com/2011/11/25/prominent-writer-actor-rauf-khalid-dies-in-road-accident.html). Dawn. Com. . Retrieved 2012-01-15.

External links

• Watch PTV dramas (http://www.thepakistani.tv/)

Alpha Bravo Charlie

328

Alpha Bravo Charlie

Alpha Bravo Charlie

Format

Military miniseries

Created by

ISPR

Shoaib Mansoor

Starring

Qasim Khan

Abdullah Mahmood

Faraz Inam

Shahnaaz Khwaja

Aarshid Kazmi

Wiqar Ahmed

Hashmat Shaikh

Rafar Moeen

Malik Ata Muhammad Khan

Narrated by

Zia-ur Rehman (subtitles)

Country of origin

Q Pakistan

No. of episodes

14

Production

Running time

approx 40 min.

Broadcast

Original channel

PTV

Original run

May 1998 -July 1998

Alpha Bravo Charlie (Urdu script: ^J^> jjI^j LaJI) is an action and thriller drama series, produced by ISPR and
directed by acclaimed Pakistani drama and film director Shoaib Mansoor. It was hugely popular and set a record for
TRPs (Television Rating Points) in Pakistan. It is a sequel to drama series Sunehre Din (Golden Days) with some of
the same cast. The series ran on PTV during the first half of 1998. The events in the drama involve romance and
comedy, while reflecting the Pakistan Army's military operational involvement in the Bosnian War and Siachen
conflict. [1][2][3]

Major characters

The script involves four characters, three of them army officers, and the only female who is an educator in a public
school.

• Faraz Ahmed (Faraz Inam): A Captain in the army, and a son of a rich landlord Malik Ata Muhammad Khan of
Kot Fateh Khan in Punjab, Faraz graduated from the 80th PMA Long Course with a Sword of Honor — Imtiazi
Sanad. He belongs to the 32nd Cavalry Lahore of the Armoured Corps. He is a confident, ambitious man - a Mr.
Perfect who is well-built, good looking and wealthy to go along with his excellent academic record. He owns his
own Mercedes, a Black CI 80. Ahmad, unlike his friends, was not assigned to any of the combat actions. He uses
its resources to open a charity school for the special children with Shahnaz. As time passes, Ahmad was made a
general officer (3-star rank) in the army.

• Kashif Kirmani (Captain Abdullah Mehmood): An active duty army captain and son of a senior Army officer, a
two star Major-General, Kashif graduated from the 80th PMA Long Course and belongs to the 32nd Cavalry
Lahore of the Armoured Corps. He is a 3rd generation army officer who initially dislikes being in the Army, but
later proves himself. He is the main character responsible for providing humor through his funny mischief. He is a

Alpha Bravo Charlie 329

first cousin to Shahnaaz, the series' leading female character. Captain Kashif Kirmani was stationed in the
high-altitude mountains of Siachen Glacier and commanded a mountaineering unit there. Brig. Hashim observed
an Indian Army's troop rotation further along Pakistan's border via an army helicopter, belonging to Pakistan
Army Corps of Aviation. Captain Kashif Kirmani volunteered for the operation to divert the military movement
made by the Indian Army, was and thoroughly briefed with the dangerous mission. Captain Kashif Kirmani and
his companion , Fida Ahmed from SSG, was dropped off at a cold, unknown area, covered with heavy snow,
where the team performs the mountaineering climb and stunts on a high-altitude cliff. During climbing Fida was
hit by the firing of the Indian Army. Captain Kashif reaches the top alone before the Indian Army and killed the
whole team of the Indian Army alone . However, an Indian Army soldier, the only one left during battle,
succeeded in climbing to the top of the mountain but was intercepted by Captain Kashif Kirmani. After inquiring
about his unit, Captain Kashif Kirmani decides to let the Indian army soldier go. Captain Kashif Kirmani tried to
contact his commanding base but the communication is disabled due to a heavy snow storm. Captain Kashif
Kirmani is eventually picked up by the Pakistan Army, after three days of being exposed in the snow storm, and
was taken to a military hospital. There his shins and arms were amputated. Captain Kashif Kirmani received an
honorary discharge but at his insistence to stay in the army, he was transferred to the Science and Technology
Division of Pakistan Army. Captain Kashif Kirmani later learned about the fate of Captain Gulsher Khan, who
went MIA in Bosnia.

• Gulsher Khan (Captain M. Qasim Khan): a Captain in the army and son of a JCO, he graduated from the 80th
PMA Long Course and belonged to the 9th FF Battalion, Lahore of the FF Regiment. Mild mannered, modest and
humble, he married Shahnaz Sher and settled in a luxurious apartment. A few days after his marriage, Khan was
sent to Bosnia on a U.N. peacekeeping mission. While a commanding officer of his company, Khan harbored and
launched a number of rescue operations to protect Bosnian Muslims, held by the Serbian forces. There, he was
among those who received a respectful reputation within the Bosnian community. He befriended a Bosnian
woman who fell in love with him and asked him to marry her, which he refused. Khan witnessed the Serb forces'
mass murder campaign while protecting the Bosnian Muslims, a mission that he was assigned to lead. In a
reconnaissance military operation at an unknown place in Serbia, Khan and his unit was ambushed by the Serb
forces. Both sides made contact and Khan's team tried to evade the battle which, however, was unsuccessful.
Khan then tried to launch a counter-operation against the Serb forces. The long battle ended when his unit was
brutally murdered by the Serbian forces. Khan was taken by the Serbs as POW. He was the only officer to be
captured by the Serb forces and was given treatment. The Commanding base and the United Nations assumed that
Khan' was also dead during this mission. Meanwhile, Khan tried to contact the UN Headquarters, proving the that
he was still alive. After days of being captured and held, Khan attempted an escape from the hidden camp where
he was held. The team of Serbs followed Khan, and quickly intercepted him before he reached a forest. After
receiving orders, the Serbs opened fired on him and shot him in the head. Khan was buried in an unknown place,
and was searched by the Serbs before being buried. One soldier found a torn 500 rupees and examined it. While
they departed, the soldier put the 500 rupee note on Khan's grave and gave it a final look while leaving with his
unit.

• Shahnaaz Sher (Shahnaaz Khawaja): Sher is a niece of a retired Lieutenant-General and a Corps Commander of
IV Corps. An educated woman, Sher is a Cambridge educated elementary school teacher of special children and
has a very straightforward personality with her own philosophy of life. Bold and confident she is the love interest
of Faraz, and is also first cousin of Kashif. She later married Captain Gulsher Khan. Sher visited Bosnia, with
Kirmani and Faraz, to find Khan as he sent a letter to her proving he's still alive. She interviewed many of the
Bosnian Muslims who were rescued by Khan. Sher also interviewed Khan's Bosnian friend who had once asked
him to marry her. Unable to find Khan, Sher returned to Pakistan with Khan's friends. In the end, Sher's only son
is also seen becoming an army officer, who graduates from Kakul Academy.

Alpha Bravo Charlie 330

Story

As the name indicates, the drama is based on the life and times of the same three characters- Faraz, Kashif, and
Gulsher also known as Alpha, Bravo, and Charlie respectively- and their friendship . These three passionate young
men wish to start their careers in the Pakistan army. In the initial episodes, ample footage is used to detail the
background of every individual and the circumstances under which they enroll for the armed forces. Faraz is Mr
Perfect, the guy who does everything right while Gulsher is a polite, simple minded, shy person. Kashif is originally
the funny man responsible for providing most of the comic relief through his antics, pranks and mischief. Eventually
the series morphs into a coming of age story where the lead characters realize that there is more to life than their
present happy-go-lucky lifestyle as they experience reality in all its fragility and extremities - jealousy, heartbreaks,
trauma and death. Another important character is Shahnaaz, a confident, educated and well-mannered young lady,
who plays an important role in the lives of these friends. Her involvement with them in the role of friend, wife and
confidante adds reality to the series that is poignant and touching on a personal level. The main theme of the drama
is that every person should lead a purposeful existence and that if one has the will and the passion, they can achieve
anything.

Popularity

This drama series became extremely popular in Pakistan soon after it went on air on PTV. Although the main cast
consisted of New Actors, the drama sent a virtual-life message to the masses. Being informative, entertaining and
thought-provoking with apt use of humour, the series is regarded as one of the most well-scripted and famous drama
series ever produced in Pakistan.

References

[1] "Alpha Bravo Charlie - Pakistani Television Dramas and TV Shows" (http://www.thepakistani.tv/i/12/pakistani-tv-dramas/

alpha-bravo-charlie.htm). Thepakistani.tv. 2008-03-19. . Retrieved 2012-03-06.
[2] "Alpha Bravo Charlie — Pakistani TV Drama" (http://pakistanica.com/tv/alpha-bravo-charlie/). Pakistanica.com. . Retrieved 2012-03-06.
[3] "alphabravocharlie" (http://alphabravocharlie.net.tc/). Alpha Bravo Charlie. . Retrieved 2012-03-06.

External links

• Pakistani Drama (http://alphabravocharlie.net.tc/)

• Pakistani Dramas (http://www.yourstvonline.com/)

• Alpha Bravo Charlie online (http://pakistanica.com/tv/alpha-bravo-charlie/)

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain

331

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain

The opening title screen for Sipahi Maqbool Hussain

Format

miniseries

Created by

ISPR

Interflow Communications Limited

Starring

Raja Haider, Batin Farooqi, Riaz Mastana, Hassan Niazi, Reeja

and Ghazala Butt

Country of origin

Q Pakistan

No. of episodes

6

Production

Running time

approx 40 min.

Broadcast

Original channel

TV One, PTV

Original airing

20th April 2008

Siphai Maqbool Hussain co-produced by ISPR and Interflow Communications Limited is a Pakistani miniseries,
aired during the month of April 2008, simultaneously on TV One and PTV, that narrates the true story of a Pakistani
soldier, Maqbool Hussain, who was injured and taken prisoner by the Indian Army in the 1965 war and spent 40
years in Indian jails. He was released as a civilian prisoner in 2005. During his imprisonment, Hussain was subjected
to terrible human rights abuses. The drama pays tribute to Sepoy Maqbool Hussain as an icon of resilience and
steadfastness.

Plot

As the story unfolds, Hussain, bearing army No 335139, is shown being hit by enemy fire on the Line of Control at

T21
the start of the 1965 war. Subsequently, he is taken prisoner by the Indian army, who deny him Prisoner of War

T21
status. Trained in the traditions of the Pakistan Army, Hussain faces all the suffering and refuses to share any

information about his country with his captors — so much so that when they cut out his tongue, he writes 'Pakistan

Zindabad' (long live Pakistan) in his own blood. Hussain also becomes mentally ill during his four decades of

incarceration.

The Actual Event

Sepoy Maqbool Hussain of Azad Kashmir Regiment was declared missing on August 20, 1965 during Operation
Gibraltar in Srinagar Area, his relatives said. He was understood to be have been martyred. Forty years later, he
crossed the Wagah border in exchange for civilian prisoners. A far cry from the tall, well-built soldier he once was,
mentally disoriented, was presumed to be a fisherman like the rest of the group who returned with him. On the
homecoming of the soldier, neither his parents, nor his brother of Tarrar Khal on September 17, were in this world to
receive him. In his saner moments, he kept writing "No. 335139" whenever he was questioned about his identity.
Weeks later, officials, realizing the significance of the number, handed him over to the military, under whose care he
has been for the past two years. Now he is spending his life under the high attention, and love of Pak Army.

Sipahi Maqbool Hussain 332

Director's comments

Director Haider Imam Rizvi, who has dozens of popular television plays and serials to his credit, told the gathering
he and his team had been reduced to tears several times during the filming of the poignant scenes in the drama serial.
"In my opinion, the production of 'Sipahi Maqbool Hussain' is more significant than all the 40 serials that I have
produced in my entire career," Rizvi said.

Notes

[1] http://www.ispr.gov.pk/ Archive&Press/Apr-2008/16-Apr- 2008.htm

[2] http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=2008%5C04%5C16%5Cstory_16-4-2008_pg7_54

[3] http://www.paklinks.com/gs/showbiz-pakistan/284016-sipahi-maqbool-hussain-based-true-story.html

External links

• Pakistani Drama (http://www.lashmusic.com/)

• COAS Kayani paying tribute to Maqbool Hussain (http://www.friendskorner.com/forum/fl37/
coas-kayani-paying-tribute-sipahi-maqbool-who-faced-43-yrs-indian-torture-74220/)

• Fair & Square: To Sepoy Maqbool Hussain with loveb y Mian Saifur Rehman (http://www.thenews.com.pk/
print 1. asp ?id= 116704)

333

Battles of Indo-Pakistani wars

Operation Barisal

Operation Barisal was a code-name of naval operation conducted by Pakistan Navy intended to free the city of
Barisal, East Pakistan from Mukti Bahinis and the dissidents of the Pakistan Defence Forces. It was the part of
Operation Searchlight.

Since the starting of Searchlight, the Bahinis had been staging large scale of sabotage missions, disturbing the
communications and signals operatives in East Pakistan. The Naval Intelligence found the traced to the city of
Barisal, therefore decided to conduct the operation. The Barisal was party of Searchlight to provide logistic support
to Pakistan Army, by first deploying the Pakistan Navy's gun boats and navy personnel on grounds.

References

[1] Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, pl35

• Salik, Siddiq (1997). Witness to Surrender. ISBN 984-05-1374-5.

• Ali Khan, Maj. Gen Rao Farman (1992). How Pakistan Got Divided. Jung Publishers.

• Shamsul Arefin, A.S.M (1998). History, standing of important persons involved in the Bangladesh war of
liberation. The University Press Ltd.. ISBN 984-05-0146-1.

• Islam, Major Rafiqul PSC (ret.) (1995). Muktijuddher Itihas. Kakoli Prokashoni. ISBN 984-437-086-8.

• Rahman, Md. Khalilur (2006). Muktijuddhay Nou-Abhijan. Shahittha Prakash. ISBN 984-465-449-1.

External links

• Operation Barisal (http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/navy/197 lnavalwar/gunbaots_eastpakistan. htm)

Operation Python 334

Operation Python

Operation Python, a follow up to Operation Trident, was a code name of a naval attack launched on West Pakistan's
port city of Karachi by the Indian Navy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. After the first attack during
Operation Trident on Karachi port, Pakistan stepped up aerial surveillance of its coast and the presence of large

T2R1

Indian Navy ships gave the impression that another attack was being planned. Pakistan warships attempted to
outsmart the Indian Navy by mingling with merchant shipping. To counter these moves, Operation Python was

no]

launched on the night on December 8/9, 1971.

Background

Karachi housed the headquarters of the Pakistani Navy and almost the entire fleet was based at Karachi Harbour.
Karachi was also the hub of Pakistan's maritime trade, meaning that a blockade would be disastrous for Pakistan's
economy. The defence of Karachi harbour was therefore paramount to the Pakistani High Command and it was
heavily defended against any airstrikes or naval strikes. Karachi received some of the best defences Pakistan had to
offer as well as cover from strike aircraft based at two airfields in the area. The Indian fleet lay 250 miles from
Karachi during the day, outside the range of Pakistani aircraft, and most of these aircraft did not possess
night-bombing capability. The Pakistani Navy had launched submarine operations to gather intelligence on Indian
naval efforts. Even so, with multiple intels provided by the submarines, the Navy had failed to divert the naval
attacks, due to misleading intelligence and communications.

ro on

Operation Trident was an enormous success with no damage to any of the ships of the Indian Naval Task Group,
which returned safely. The success of this operation prompted another successful attack on the Pakistani coast,
named Operation Python.

Pakistan's Naval Intelligence

The Pakistani Navy had continued its submarine operations in the region, even after the first missile attack. On
December 6, naval intelligence learned the second major formation was moving close to Karachi, in an intel passed
regularly by her submarines deployed in the region. To counter this threat, Chief of Naval Staff Vice-Admiral
Muzaffar Hassan met with Chief of Air Staff Air Marshal Abdul Rahim Khan in which an airstrike group was
formed. Following Operation Python on the evening of 8 December at about 1800 hrs. The Chief of Air Staff of PAF
was contacted by direct telephone and asked for the strike from the air. The Chief of Naval Staff of Pakistan Navy
also had a word with him to emphasise the urgency.

Operation Python

On the night of December 8, 1971, in rough seas, a small strike group consisting of missile boat INS Vinash and two
multipurpose frigates, INS Talwar and INS Trishul, approached Karachi. INS Vinash fired four SS-N-2B Styx
missiles. The first missile struck the fuel tanks at the Keamari Oil Farm. Another missile hit and sank a Panamian
fuel tanker the Gulf Star. The third and fourth missiles hit the Pakistani Navy fleet tanker PNS Dacca and the British

rocir^i ri]

ship SS Harmattan, which were badly damaged. One Pakistani ship was captured off the Makran coast.

Between Operations Trident and Python, and the Indian Air Force attacks on Karachi's fuel and ammunition depots,
more than 50 percent of the total fuel requirement of the Karachi zone was reported to have been blown up.
The result was a crippling economic blow to Pakistan. The damage was estimated at worth $3 billion, with most of
the oil reserves and ammunition, warehouses and workshops had been destroyed and PAF was also hit.

no]

Python was another successful operation by the Indian Navy. The Pakistani fuel reserves for the sector were
destroyed and the flames could be seen even from miles away. India had established complete control over the oil

Operation Python 335

route from the Persian Gulf to Pakistani ports. Shipping traffic to and from Karachi, Pakistan's only major port

at that time, ceased. The Pakistani Navy's main ships were either destroyed or forced to remain in port. A partial
naval blockade was imposed by the Indian Navy on the port of Karachi.

Aftermath

The rescue efforts were immediately coordinated by Rear-Admiral Patrick Julian Simpson (later 3-star
Vice- Admiral) who kept morale high among the officers. For this, he conferred with Sitara-e-Jurat. Apart from the
obsolescence of its weapons, the lack of adequate air support inhibited the success of its operations. The Pakistan
Navy's has surface force's human and economic casualties. Due to heavy funding for the Pakistani Army's weapons
and production, the neglect of the Navy over several decades came through clearly in the 1971 war.

Sources

• S.M.Nanda (2004). The Man Who Bombed Karachi. HarperCollins India. ISBN.

External links

• The attack as seen from a "virtual newspaper" from the time

• Youtube video of Op Trident & Python

References

[1] "How west was won. ..on the waterfront" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/bookl.htm). .
[2] "Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/

44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html). .
[3] "Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/

44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html?start=l). History 1971 India-Pakistan War. Bharat-Rakshak. . Retrieved 3 November 2011.
[4] "Spectrum" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/bookl.htm). The Tribune. Sunday, January 11, 2004. . Retrieved 3

November 2011.

Operation Trident (1971) 336

Operation Trident (1971)

Operation Trident and its follow-up Operation Python were naval offensive operations launched on Pakistan's port
city of Karachi by the Indian Navy during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Operation Trident resulted in the first use
of anti-ship missiles in the region, as well as the first sinking of naval vessels during hostilities in the region since
World War II. India celebrates its Navy Day annually on 4 December to mark this operation.

Background

Karachi housed the headquarters of the Pakistani Navy and almost the entire Pakistan Navy fleet was based at
Karachi Harbour. Karachi was also the hub of Pakistan's maritime trade, meaning that a blockade would be
disastrous for Pakistan's economy. The defence of Karachi harbour was therefore paramount to the Pakistani High
Command and it was heavily defended against any air or naval strikes. Karachi received some of the best defence
Pakistan had to offer, as well as cover from strike aircraft based at two airfields in the area.

Operation Trident was planned under the leadership of Admiral Sardarilal Mathradas Nanda. The Indian Navy's
Vidyut class missile boats, had limited range. So the plan for Operation Trident called for towing the missile boats
towards Karachi and including a refuelling tanker in the task force to enable the task force to return back to Indian
ports. The Vidyut class vessels were each armed with four SS-N-2B Styx surface-to-surface missiles with a
maximum range of 40 nmi and a firing system linked to long-range MR-331 Rangout radars.

Operation Trident

On 4 December, the Indian Navy launched a fast naval strike on the Pakistan Naval Headquarters (PNHQ) of

mi
Karachi. The task group for the operation consisted of three Vidyut class missile boats, INS Nipat (K86),

INS Nirghat (K89) and INS Veer (K82) from the 25th "Killer" Missile Boat Squadron, escorted by two

anti-submarine Arnala class corvettes, INS Kiltan (P79) and INS Katchall (P81), and a fleet tanker, INS Poshak.

The task group was led by the Commanding Officer of the 25th Squadron, Commander Babru Bhan Yadav,

embarked on INS Nipat.

As per the operational plan, the task group reached 250 nautical miles (unknown operator: u'strong' km) south of
Karachi and stayed in the area during the day, outside the range of Pakistan Air Force (PAF) aircraft. The plan was
to attack Karachi at night because most PAF aircraft did not possess night-time bombing capability. In the evening
on December 4, INS Kiltan and the 3 missile boats approached Karachi, evading Pakistani reconnaissance aircraft
and surface patrol vessels.

At 2230 hrs PST, the task group converged about 70 nautical miles (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km) south of
Karachi detected Pakistani targets, analyzed as warships 45 miles to the northwest and 42 miles to the northeast.

INS Nirghat then steered towards and engaged the northwesterly target and after verification, fired the first SS-N-2B
Styx missile at the destroyer, PNS Khaibar, which was on patrol. Khaibar mistook the missile to be an aircraft and
engaged it with its Bofors anti-aircraft guns. The missile struck Khaibar on the starboard side and exploded below
the aft galley in the Electrician's mess deck at about 2245 hrs PST. The ship immediately lost propulsion, plunged
into darkness and the No.l Boiler room exploded, engulfing the ship in thick black smoke. Khaibar sent out an
emergency transmission to PNHQ which read "Enemy aircraft attacked in position 020 FF 20. No 1 Boiler hit. Ship
stopped. " In the panic of the attack, the transmission sent incorrect coordinates of the ship's position, which resulted
in delays in rescuing the survivors later. With the target still afloat, at about 2249 hrs, INS Nirghat fired a second
missile, which was seen approaching and again engaged with anti-aircraft guns of Khaibar. The missile struck the
No. 2 Boiler room on the starboard side, sinking PNS Khaibar.

At 2300 hours, INS Nipat engaged two targets to the northeast approaching Karachi. Verifying the targets, Nipat
launched 1 Styx missile each at the MV Venus Challenger and her destroyer escort PNS Shah Jahan (DD-962) .

Operation Trident (1971) 337

By Indian claims the MV Venus Challenger was carrying ammunition for Pakistan from the United States

forces in Saigon. The ammunition on the Venus Challenger immediately exploded as the missile struck sinking her
about 26 miles south of Karachi . The other missile damaged PNS Shah Jahan. .

At 2320 hours, the minesweeper PNS Muhafiz, was targeted by a Styx missile from INS Veer. The missile hit
Muhafiz on the port side abaft the bridge, instantaneously disintegrating the vessel before it could send a
transmission to the PNHQ.

INS Nipat continuing towards Karachi, locked on to the Kemari oil storage tanks of the port from 14 nautical miles
(unknown operator: u'strong 1 km) south of the harbor. It fired two missiles at the tanks. One of the missiles
misfired, while the other hit the fuel tanks, which were burnt and destroyed, causing heavy loss. The task force
then withdrew back towards Bombay. The operation Trident was also noted for introducing the first ship launched
missiles in the region, to the war.

Aftermath

Overall, the Indian Navy's missile attack was carefully planned and executed well. The attack achieved complete
surprise and was a shock to Pakistan's Armed Forces Command.

A disjointed and haphazard rescue operation was launched to locate and recover survivors of PNS Khaibar, while
PNHQ was not aware of the sinking of PNS Muhafiz. PNHQ learnt of the fate of Muhafiz from her survivors who
were rescued when a patrol vessel steered towards her burning flotsam while searching for survivors from the
Khaibar.

Pakistan Airforce retaliated to these attacks by bombing Okha harbour scoring direct hits on fuelling facilities for
missile boats, ammunition dump and the missile boats jetty. Indians were ready for this and had already moved

the missile boats to other locations to prevent any losses . But the destruction of the special fuel tank prevented any

T71
further incursions until Operation Python.

The Pakistan Navy, on high alert as a result of the operation, raised a number of false alarms in the ensuing days
about the presence of Indian Navy vessels off Karachi. One such false alarm was raised by a Pakistan Navy Fokker
Friendship reconnaissance aircraft on 6 December 1971 which reported a Pakistan Navy frigate as a missile boat by
Indian Navy. The PNHQ ordered a Pakistan Air Force (PAF) air strike on the supposed Indian ship. At 0645 hrs,
fighter jets were scrambled which strafed the vessel before it was identified as Pakistan Navy's own frigate PNS
Zulfiqar, which suffered casualties and damage as a result of this friendly fire.

Operation Trident was considered an enormous success for the Indian Navy with no casualties or damage to the
Indian task group, which returned safely back to Indian ports. The success of this operation prompted another
successful attack on Karachi on 8 December 1971, known as Operation Python.

Controversy

Indian Air Force sources claim some kills of this operation including the Karachi oil tanks on the remark that Indian
Navy's C-in-C at Mumbai, Vice Admiral S.N. Kohli wrongly claimed the fire on the oil tanks as the reports of both
incidents were given at the same time. The Indian Navy and Army is accused of wrongly claiming Indian Air Force's
similar achievements including the Battle of Longewala.

Awards

The Indian Navy celebrates its Navy Day on December 4, to mark the operational victory.

A number of Indian Navy personnel were honored with gallantry awards for the operation. Then Fleet Operations
Officer and later Vice Admiral Gulab Mohanlal Hiranandani, was awarded the Nausena Medal for the detailed
operational planning.

Operation Trident ( 1 97 1 ) 338

Maha Vir Chakra

• Commander Babru Bhan Yadav, for planning and leading the task force.

Vir Chakra

ri3i

• Lieutenant Commander Bahadur Nariman Kavina, commanding officer of INS Nipat

• Lieutenant Commander Inderjit Sharma, commanding officer of INS Nirghat

• Master Chief M. N. Sangal, INS Nirghat

• Lieutenant Commander Om Prakash Mehta, commanding officer of INS Veer

Sources

• S.M.Nanda (2004). The Man Who Bombed Karachi. HarperCollins India. ISBN.

References

[I] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/viyut.htm

[2] "Indo-Pakistani War of 1971" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1971.htm). .

[3] "Indian Navy's War Hero passes away: Cmde Babru Yadav led the Missile Boat Attack on Karachi in 1971" (http://www.indiastrategic.in/

topstories548.htm). .
[4] "Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/NAVY/History/1971War/

44-Attacks-On-Karachi.html). .
[5] "How west was won. ..on the waterfront" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2004/20040111/spectrum/bookl.htm). .
[6] Harry, B.. "Trident, Grandslam and Python: Attacks on Karachi" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-4/harry.html).

Pages from History. Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 28 October 201 1.
[7] "NAVAL OPERATIONS IN THE WESTERN NAVAL COMMAND" (http://indiannavy.nic.in/t2t2e/Trans2Trimph/chapters/10_1971

wncl.htm). Indian Navy. .
[8] "1971 War: The First Missile Attack on Karachi" (http://www.indiandefencereview.com/spotlight/

1971-War-The-First-Missile-Attack-on-Karachi.html). Indian Defence Review. . Retrieved 31 October 2011.
[9] http://www.paffalcons.com/gallery/aviation-art/syed-hussaini/trauma-and-reconstruction.php
[10] http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world7pakistan/air-force-combat.htm

[II] http://www.indiadefenceupdate.com/news94.html

[12] "Vice-Admiral Hiranandani cremated with full Naval honours" (http://www.thehindu.com/news/states/kerala/articlel4650.ece). The

Hindu. 2009-09-03. . Retrieved 2012-01-19.
[13] http ://indiannavy . nic . in/ vir. htm

External links

• The attack as seen from a "virtual newspaper" from the time (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/1971/Dec05/)

• Youtube video of Op Trident & Python (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZzNCePxoxp4&mode=related&
search=)

Battle of Asal Uttar 339

Battle of Asal Uttar

The Battle of Asal Uttar (Punjabi and Hindi for Battle of Definitive Reply or more appropriately Fitting Response)
was one of the largest tank battles fought during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. It was fought from September 8
through September 10, 1965, when the Pakistan Army thrust its tanks and infantry into Indian territory, capturing the
Indian town of Khem Karan 5 km from the International Border. The Indian troops retaliated, and after three days
of bitter fighting, the battle ended with the Pakistani forces being repulsed near Asal Uttar. Factors that contributed
to this were the conditions of the plains, better Indian tactics and a successful strategy.

War historians, including Dr. Philip Towle, regard the Indian resistance near Khem Karan as one of the key turning
points of the war, one which tilted the balance of the war in favor of India. Peter Wilson states that the defeat of
Pakistan Army in the battle of Asal Uttar was one of the greatest defeats suffered by Pakistan forces in the course of
Indo-Pak war of 1965. [3]

Battle

Pakistan's invading force, consisting of the 1st Armoured Division and 11th Infantry Division, crossed the

International Border and captured the Indian town of Khem Karan. After the seizure, the Indian Army regrouped and

launched a counter attack. Indian troops flooded the area, which slowed the advance of the Pakistani tanks down and

successfully brought them inside a horse-shoe formation, a trap where the advancing Pakistani troops were

ambushed and repelled. 97 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or captured while the Indians, by their account, lost

mi
only 12 tanks during this offensive.

Conclusion

Despite the initial thrust of the Pakistani Army into Indian territory, the battle ended in a decisive Indian victory.

T31
The commander of Pakistani forces Maj. Gen. Nasir Ahmed Khan himself was fatally hit in the battle. However,

the failure of Indian troops to regain Khem Karan and further losses in Sailkot led to a strategic stalemate and

ultimately caused both parties to call for negotiations. According to military historian Steve Zaloga, Pakistan

admitted that it lost 165 tanks during the 1965 war, more than half of which were knocked out during the "debacle"

of Asal Uttar. [4]

Pervez Musharraf, later Army Chief of Staff and President of Pakistan, participated in this battle as a lieutenant of
artillery in the 16 (SP) Field Regiment, 1st Armoured Division Artillery. The battle also witnessed the personal
bravery of an Indian soldier, Abdul Hamid, who was honoured with the Param Vir Chakra, India's highest military
award, for knocking out seven enemy tanks with a recoilless gun.

This battle led to the creation of Patton Nagar (or Patton City) at the site of the battle viz., Khemkaran. This is
because a large number of Patton tanks fielded by the Pakistani forces were either captured or destroyed at the

[4]

scene.

Battle of Asal Uttar

340

Gallery

Brig. Hari Singh Deora, 18th Cavalry (Indian

Army) after Indian Army destroyed over

Patton and Sherman Tanks of Pakistani Army

during the 1965 Indo-Pak War.

Destroyed Pakistani tanks arranged at "Patton
Nagar"

The tanks displayed at Khemkaran

References

[1] R.D. Pradhan & Yashwantrao Balwantrao Chavan (2007). 1965 War, the Inside Story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's Diary of

India-Pakistan War. (http://books. google. com/books?id=ymYCIQjEGBUC&pg=PA47). Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, pp. 47.

ISBN 978-81-269-0762-5. .
[2] Towle, Philip. Estimating foreign military power. Routledge, 1982. ISBN 0-7099-0434-7, 9780709904342.
[3] Wilson, Peter. Wars, proxy-wars and terrorism: post independent India (http://books.google.co. in/books ?id=qYK0BhcgwaQC&

lpg=PA157&ots=8VGWdxPcuZ&dq=Wars, proxy-wars and terrorism: post independent India&pg=PA84#v=onepage&q=uttar&f=false).

Mittal Publications, pp. 83-84. ISBN 81-7099-890-5. .
[4] Zaloga, Steve; Jim Laurie (1999). The M47 andM48 Patton tanks. Osprey. pp. 33. ISBN 978-1-85532-825-9.
[5] [Maj Gen Cardozo, Ian (2003). PARAM VIR. New Delhi: Lotus Collection. ISBN 81-7436-262-2]
[6] The Param Vir Chakra Winners' home page for Company Quarter Master Havildar Abdul Hamid (http://indianarmy.nic.in/PVC/photo_6.

htm)

Resources

• 1965 Official War History, Ministry of Defence, Government of India

• Pakistan Military Consortium

• The Battle of Assal Uttar: Pakistan and India 1965 (http://orbat.com/site/history/historical/india/assaluttar.
html) - ORBAT

External links

• Pictures of the Patton Nagar (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Patton2.html)

B attle of Atgram 341

Battle of Atgram

The Battle of Atgram Complex, fought on 21 November 1971 between the 5 Gorkha Rifles of the Indian Army and
the 31 Punjabs of the Pakistan Army, was one of the first engagements between the two opposing forces that
preceded the formal initiation of hostilities of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, and also one of the first large scale
assaults launched by the Indian army against East Pakistani forces preluding to the 1971 war.

Site

The battle was fought on the border village Atgram, in the Sylhet District of then East Pakistan, approximately 35
kilometres from the (then)East Pakistani town of Sylhet. The village lay across the Surma River, which served as a
de-facto border, separating East Pakistan from the Cachar District of Assam, India.

The target of the Indian operation was the Atgram complex. Situated two kilometres inside the International Border
across the River Surma, Atgram served as a major road communication centre at the eastern edge of Sylhet Division
of East Pakistan, connecting it with Zakiganj to the south opposite the Indian Border town of Karimganj. The
complex itself comprised a Pakistani border outpost on the River Surma, a Masjid close to the outpost and the village
of Atgram itself. The site was held by a defending force of the B company of the 31 Punjab Regiment, Pakistan
Army, along with additional elements of Mujahids, Thal/Tochi Scouts and the Pakistan Rangers under Major Azhar
Alvi, supported by Medium Machine Guns (MMGs), Recoilless Guns (RCLs), Chinese Rocket Launchers and 81
millimetre mortars. Surrounded by low lying marshes, nearly knee deep, Atgram itself lay on a higher ground. The
Battalion Headquarter of 31 Punjab was reported to be located at Charkhai with some troops 10 kilometres west of
Atgram.

Early operations

The Indian Army's 59 Mountain Brigade led by Brigadier C A Quinn, was tasked to capture Atgram-Zakiganj.
Accordingly, 4/5 Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force) was tasked to capture the Atgram Salient by first light 21
November 1971 and advance further towards Charkhai and secure Sarkar Bazar, which lay approximately 4
kilometres west of the village of Atgram. The 9 Guards of 59 Mountain Brigade were given the task of capturing
Zakiganj. The plans for the attack, drawn up by Lieutenant Colonel A B Harolikar, aimed to surpirse the defending
Pakistani force by infiltrating, and establishing road blocks to prevent reinforcements from Sarkar Bazar from the
west Zakiganj to the south. This meant that to reach the Atgram, the Gorkhas had to cross the River Surma,
infiltrating between Pakistani defences of Raigram and Amalsid, proceeding through four kilometres of marshes and
launching the assault on Atgram complex from the rear. The force was then to proceed and clear the Border
Outposts. The Gorkha C Company and an Adhoc Force, was tasked to set up the road blocks and hold the
approaches, while the main attack on Atgram was to be carried out by A and D Companies. To achieve maximum
possible surprise, as well as a psychological factor, the main attack was planned with Kukris.

By August 1971, Battalion (Fourth Battalion The Fifth Gorkha Rifles (Frontier Force)) had concentrated at
Panchgram {Badarpur- Cachar District; Assam}. It was evident that Battalion will have to soon un-sheath Khukri's.
There was furious activity, exchange of fire and forays deep inside the East Pakistan territory by Mukti Bahini
fighters. The influx of refugees had reached all time high and everyday there were news of some activity along the
border. Reports of possible sabotage by Paki Forces along Silichar / Jaintia Hills {Meghalaya} Border were ripe and
my Company {Delta} was moved to general area Ratachara / Natanpur for patrolling, support of Mukti Bahini and
instil confidence amongst local population. One fine day {Third week of September 1971} Late Brigadier C A
Quinn {Bunty Quinn; our Commander, 59 Mountain Brigade} visited the Company. This was the time Pakistani
Guns from Charkhai in Sylhet Sector opened on our positions, to be silenced by a troop of our medium guns. In the
coming weeks, due to frequent firing by Pakistani Forces in this area, mostly on Mukhti Bahini fighters, they {Mukti

Battle of Atgram 342

Bahini} had planned to go inside East Pakistan territory and capture Sarkar Bazar {See sketch below} and area
around it. By about 3 PM on the designated day they were in Sarkar Bazar and in jubilation fired in the air and
remained there for the night, withdrew and fell back on our firm base. My senior JCO, Subedar Bal Bahadur Thapa,
with a platoon, had escorted them, as we had orders not to go beyond the firm base. This general area {Sarkar Bazar}
was to become a landmark in our battalion operations in November 1971. In the meantime East Bengal Rifle Units,
organised as a brigade { 1 EBR Brigade} under Colonel Zia-ul— Rehman {Late General Zia-ul— Rehman, who became
Bangladesh Army Chief and later President Of Bangladesh after the assassination of Sheikh Mujib-u- Rehman in a
coup on 15 August 1975}. One fine day 1 EBR Brigade moved into the area, with one of its battalions. Colonel Zia
too arrived and we had a quite evening together over Mach and Bat {Fish Curry and Rice}. Things had started
hotting up; a quiet Dasain {Dussehra} for the Battalion and end October saw the whole battalion again concentrate at
Panchgram; fondly called Char-Panch Gram, after our battalion numerical number 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier
Force}, for next session.

Reconnaissance and objectives

By beginning November 1971, we had already done reconnaissance along the borders but by mid November it was
area specific, where the brigade was to operate; area opposite Natanpur / Karbala BOP's; Atgram Complex. Atgram
Complex, nearly 30 kilometres from East Pakistan's important town of Sylhet, was based on a border village of
Atgram, referred to as Umargarh by Pakistanis, two kilometres inside and across River Surma, which also was
approximately the border between then East Pakistan and Cachar District of Assam {India}. The complex comprised
Amalsid Border Out Post {BOP} based on Inspection Bungalow {IB} on river Surma, Masjid close to this BOP and
Atgram Village. Atgram was located on a higher ground than the low lying and nearly knee deep marshy area around
it. B Company 31 Punjab Pakistan Army with additional elements of Mujahids, Thai/ Tochi Scouts, Rangers,
supported by Medium Machine Guns {MMGs), Recoilless Guns {RCL's}, Chinese Rocket Launchers and 81
millimetre mortars under Major Azhar Alvi were defending Atgram Complex. All positions except Atgram Bus
Stand, where in front and could be observed and had been actively engaging our BOP's with fire and rockets. Atgram
being in depth, could not be observed and information about the Paki deployment in this area was scanty. Battalion
Headquarter 31 Punjab and some forces was reported to be located at Charkhai, 7 kilometres away. 31 Punjab Pak
Army was also holding Zakiganj, south of Atgram, with another company. Paki defences were supported by guns
from area around Charkhai; on road Atgram- Charkhai- Sylhet. By 16 November we were told of our areas of
interest; Atgram Complex i.e. Amalsid Masjid and Amalsid IB {BOP} and Atgram Bus Stand. 4/5 Gorkha Rifles
{Frontier Force} was given the task of capturing Atgram Complex by first light 21 November 1971, secure Sarkar
Bazar 3-4 kilometres west of Atgram and advance towards Charkhai, on orders. The best option to capture Atgram
Complex was to first capture Atgram and then develop operations towards its front localities. This meant crossing of
River Surma, infiltrate in between Pakistani defended locality of Raygram and Amalsid BOP's, traverse four
kilometres of marsh and assault Atgram from the rear and then clear the BOP's/ defences in the front. 9 Guards of
the brigade {59 Mountain Brigade} was simultaneously tasked to capture Zakiganj. Commanding Officer,
Lieutenant Colonel {Later Brigadier} A B Harolikar, MVC formulated the attack plan based on measures to achieve
surprise; attack by infiltration, establishment of road blocks at Sarkar Bazar by B Company, 3-4 kilometres west of
Atgram and south of Atgram by C Company. The main assault was to be launched by two Company's; Alfa {Late
Major Dinesh Rana} and Delta {Major {Later Brigadier} Rattan Kaul}. Khukri, the world famous personal weapon
of a Gurkha was to be the principal weapon of decision in this battle of hand to hand fight.

Based on orders, both assaulting Company Commanders allocated objectives and tasking as under, after coordination
within themselves:-

Battle of Atgram 343

Alfa

Simultaneous attack on Amalsid and IB {Inspection Bungalow} from rear with two platoons (Praveen Johri (No 1
Platoon) and Hawa Singh (No 2 Platoon)) with Subedar Ran Bahadur's platoon {No 3 Platoon} as reserve. Attack
timings were to be coordinated with Delta and progress of the movement.

Delta

Simultaneous attack from rear along Zakiganj- Atgram Road with two platoons {Yang Bharat {No 10 Platoon} and
Subedar Tirtha Bahadur {No 11 Platoon} with Subedar Bal Bahadur Thapa's platoon {No 12 Platoon} as reserve. No
10 Platoon was specifically tasked to capture area of Atgram Road Junction, {No 11 Platoon} Subedar Tirtha
Bahadur capture high ground overlooking road junction.

Attack Plan

The countdown began on 17 November 1971. CO gave out attack plan in the Officers Mess at Panchgram, on an
enlargement:-

• Concentration into Forward Assembly Area {FAA} Night 19/20 November. FAA two kilometres behind
Natanpur BOP, in a jungle area. Move partly by day ex Panchgram and move beyond NH 44 after hours of
darkness.

• Attack by infiltration, after establishing secure corridor across Surma River. Movement to riverfront to start after
last light 20 November.

• Crossing of Surma River with pneumatic boats under Engineer Regiment, BSF to secure home bank but to be told
of task at last minute. C Company {Major later Colonel Maney Malik} secure far bank and establish corridor by
2130 hours 20 November. Kelagram/ Raghur Chak to be masked but no physical assault. Beyond far bank, B
Company { Viru Rawat} to move ahead; bypass Raygram, Kamalpur villages, establish Road Block in area Sarkar
Bazar, not later than 0300 hours 21 November 1971, act as reserve from the direction of West and CO 2
{Second-in-Command} {late Major Shyam Kelkar} to control the road block operations.

• C Company less a platoon to move behind B Company, establish road block on Atgram — Zakiganj Road in area
jungle, south of Atgram Road Junction and act as reserve. Platoon {Under Ravindra Singh} for corridor
protection, to reel up and move at the tail of the battalion column.

• Major later Colonel Yashwant {Jassi} Rawat with Pioneer Section, Section each of MMG's and Rcl, making
adhoc force; to move behind C Company and establish in general area just north of C Company for task to be
given later.

• A Company {Late Major Dinesh Rana} to move behind C Company and capture Amalsid BOP and IB
{Inspection Bungalow}.

• D Company {Major {later Brigadier} Rattan Kaul} to move behind A Company and capture Atgram Bus Stand to
include Atgram High Ground. Attack timings to be synchronised depending upon movement, but appreciated
between 0100 and 0300 hours 21 November 1971.

• Battalion R Group to move with C Company up to the corridor and thereafter move with one of the company, as
the progress of movement warranted. Strict silence and fire control; avoid known positions, no return fire, while
moving to the objectives. Artillery support only during the assault to be coordinated on Radio by CO, Company
Commanders, BC and Artillery OP's.

Choice of H Hour. Unlike conventional attack, CO gave a broad band of Hotel hour for the attack was by infiltration;
timings depended upon progress of movement through the area. It also depended, to certain extent, time it took to
cross Surma River. CO when asked about his Hotel hour at the Divisional Headquarter had given reasoning and in
his own words; "Planned to ' close in' {i.e. pounce on the enemy inside their bunker} between 1 AM and 3 AM on
the night of 20/21 November 1971, their senses dulled, and reactions and responses slow."

Battle of Atgram 344

Conduct of Operations

The Battalion crossed River Surma in the earlier part of the night of 20 November 1971. C Company and
Commanding Officers Group were first to cross with the help of pneumatic boats, established firm base across the
river for battalion to pass through and move in between Pakistani BOP's. The task of C Company involved securing
of far bank of the River, establish a firm base and masking Pakistani localities of Amalsid, Kelagram and Raygram.
After the establishment of firm base, battalion passed through. C Company, which was to reel up and establish a road
block on road Atgram - Zakiganj. B Company {Major {Later Lt Col} VS Rawat and Late Major Kelkar} tasked to
establish Road Block at Sarkar Bazar {west of Atgram} crossed after establishment of firm base and corridor. The
assault force of A Company {Dinesh Rana}, D Coy {Rattan Kaul} and an Adhoc Force {Major {Later Colonel}
Yashwant Rawat} crossed thereafter, in that sequence. Initial progress of move was slow due to firing by Pakistani
posts and movement through the marshy stretch. The battalion troops did not retaliate. The assaulting troops {A and
D Company} neared the objective in the later part of the night. C Company and Adhoc Force established road block
as planned, while B Coy established road block at Sarkar Bazar.

Pak Patrol's 'Order' To Raise Hands

Soon column of assaulting company's crossed a track/road. It was 5 to 7 feet above ground level and we thought we
had either crossed Atgram-Raygram/ Bala or Atgram-Zakiganj Road and the objectives were still far off. At this
juncture the assaulting column guides {Alfa Company} started steering towards North. Earlier effort to find direction
of the objectives with a round of fire was not utilised, to maintain surprise. There was need to go closer towards the
objective, as it was felt that we were going away from them. Alfa column, CO's Group had crossed over the road,
Delta's 10 Platoon too had crossed. My Group had just crossed and part of 11 Platoon too had crossed, but bulk of
this platoon was on the road. By some coincidence Subedar Bal Bahadur bringing up the tail fetched up parallel to
this platoon and in whispers was asking me as to how far we were from Atgram. The road remained solidly
silhouetted against starry night. Suddenly few men appeared against the skyline, on the road, with a bunker close by.
Someone amongst them shouted "Kaun Hai. Hath Khara Karo" {Who is there? Raise your hand}. I felt that this was
the position of Atgram; indicators being road, bunker and Paki troops who must have thought that Mukhti's had
come. In retaliation few of us, close by, shouted 'Charge Ayo Gorkhali'. Frankly to this day I don't know what made
us shout the war cry, at this stage, when indicators were not enough of being next to the objective. I could hear CO
shouting 'Parkha, Objective ma pughe Chhaina' {Wait, we are still away from the objective}; The arrow had left the
bow and there was no way to recall it and Ayo Gorkhali resonated around the area. This was at about 0430 Hours 21
November 1971, when A and D Company, led by their commanders, with CO in the centre, launched fierce Khukri
assault and as the dawn broke captured Atgram. Pakistanis were caught by surprise and met their end with dazzling
Khukris. In the battle Major Azhar Alvi tried to kill the CO and others but was killed. After capture of Atgram, A
Company secured Chargram, west of Atgram. D Company secured Amalsid Masjid and Amalsid BOP. 31 bodies of
Pakistanis including that of Major Azhar Alvi were found and scores of Paki troops reportedly injured. The assault
was classical operation of attack by infiltration, silent attack personally led by Commanding Officer {CO}, company
commander's, junior leaders and use of Khukri's as the weapon of decision.

Major Azhar Alvi, Company Commander B Company 31 Punjab Pak Army- Fights Back

During the process of reorganisation, I was moving along with CO and we had already seen Company Commander's
bunker. As we came out into a bigger room, where our injured and dead were lying, we saw a row of 8 to 10 Paki
dead bodies; but none except one with a weapon. The person sturdy and well built was fully and neatly dressed,
lying amongst the dead. I am not sure as to whether he was injured or feigning; in no case seriously injured. Sudden
movement by this person startled us. Actually we were taking toll of enemy dead and our own casualties. I noticed
that the sturdy person posing as dead, was moving his hand on the rifle at his side {Actually it was deadly Chinese
Carbine, as I recollect -I came to know later that he was Major Alvi, B Coy Commander, 31 Punjab Pak Army }.He

Battle of Atgram 345

tried to grapple with CO, as I was trying to shoot him but my sten gun misfired. Subedar Ran Bahadur, who was next
to us and seeing my sten not firing, hit him and pumped a burst into Alvi and killing him instantly. Major Alvi lay
dead. Major Azhar Alvi of B Company 31 Punjab died a death of a brave soldier. Even when the chips were down,
he tried his best to kill command elements of the Battalion. Exemplary bravery, a dignified death in the best tradition
of the troops he commanded and for the country he served. Major Azhar Alvi was awarded Hilal-e- Jurat, Pakistan's
second highest award for bravery {Equivalent to our MVC} posthumously. He deserved it, for he set an example by
doing something spectacular in these circumstances. Later in the day at Atgram, CO had also found a walking stick.
In the afternoon situation had stabilised and Commander, Brigadier Bunty Quinn came to Atgram. CO tried to
present the walking stick to him, which was declined. But he {Bunty Quinn} while moving around, noticed a
Parakeet {Possibly pet bird of late Major Alvi} in a cage, shrieking, forlorn, almost insane and caged in Alvi's room.
He whistled to the bird for a while and was successful in quietening him. The bird was handed over to Commander
and he gracefully took it. The Parakeet had sensed death of his master and in his hour of grief someone, Bunty
Quinn, had come to share it with him and that is how he quietened as Bunty Quinn whistled to him and carried it
with him.

Losses

We lost two officers {Captain Johri, Second Lieutenant Hawa Singh; both Platoon Commanders'}, One JCO
{MFC}, Two Other Rank's and few injured. It was this Khukri assault which blazed trail of terror amongst the
Paki's; B Company 31 Punjab disintegrated and ceased to exist. Rifleman Dil Bahadur Chettri for single handedly
killing eight Pakistanis with his Khukri was awarded Maha Vir Chakra {MVC}. Rifleman Phas Bahadur Pun and
Second Lieutenant Hawa Singh were awarded Vir Chakra, posthumously, for their exemplary bravery. The Battalion
won one Maha Vir Chakra {MVC}, two Vir Chakra's { Vr C's} and two Sena Medal's (SM's; Captain Praveen Johry
{Posthumously} and Subedar Tirtha Bahadur) for this action. For his exemplary leadership, command, personal
bravery at Atgram, followed by attack at Gazipur, and successful conduct of Indian Army's First Ever Heliborne
Operation at Sylhet, resulting in the surrender of two Pakistani Brigades {202 & 313} Commanding Officer
Lieutenant Colonel {Later Brigadier} A B Harolikar was awarded Maha Vir Chakra {MVC; Second Highest
Bravery Award}. This flash of Khukri's created such terror in the minds of Pakistani troops that their company of 22
Baluch buckled at Gazipur, further South, on 4/5 December 1971 and when battalion landed at Sylhet on 7
December 1971, in Indian Army's first ever heliborne operation. It held ground in spite of odds, tied down two
Pakistani Brigades {313 and 202}, culminating in negotiation of surrender of Sylhet Garrison to the Battalion (4/5
GR (FF)) on the morning of 15 December 1971 and formal surrender on 16 December 1971; nearly 24 hours earlier
than their surrender at Dacca on 16 December evening.

Aftermath

After this assault phase, A Company moved to Sarkar Bazar, to reinforce road block established by B Company
under Second-in-Command Late Major Shyam Kelkar. After securing of Amalsid, my Company {D} also moved to
Sarkar Bazar and by about mid day built up on the other two Companies B and A}. As I led the company column
along the road, we saw a 6 foot tall burly Pathan, in Muzri dress, duly tied with rope, being escorted by two
Johnny's; Naik Damar Bahadur Gurung, a boxer of the battalion who was hardly 5 feet tall and Naik Suk Bahadur;
both of Bravo Company; with remainder few men walking loosely behind them. It was apparent that the patrol had
captured the Paki and were now escorting him to Company Headquarter. A smile appeared on my lips, while men
around me giggled. We were approximately 100 yards away from them when I hailed them. Damare, as we called
Naik Damar Bahadur Gurung, looked towards me and before I could say Jack Robin, there was a grenade blast. The
Pathan seeing his predicament had taken out a grenade from his pouch, took off the pin, kept it next to his body, told
Damare and his colleagues to Bago {Run Away} and blew himself up. He was from Tochi Scouts, as his shoulder
titles indicated. Tochi's are Pakistan's Northern Area tribal; fiercely proud and brave. This unknown Tochi had stood

Battle of Atgram 346

by the reputation of his tribe.

In spite of inadequate intelligence and topographical information, we waded through deep marshy area, which was
not known, but nobody cared at that time. This is because mind is so deeply and intensely occupied with variety of
likely consequences and toying with contingencies thereof that body is immune to external stimuli. That is the state
of mind on such occasions. Atgram was classic assault by infiltration, against strong and almost equal opposition,
delivered with the skill of a craftsman, who achieves a perfect result, even beyond his expectations. B Company 31
Punjab Pak Army and affiliated troops at Atgram ceased to exist for the rest of the war. And finally the encounter
with late Major Azhar Alvi; CO, myself and many others being his close and immediate target. The encounter for
Alvi was either "you or me". It would have been catastrophic had Alvi succeeded. This is what Major Mumtaz
Hussain Shah also of 3 1 Punajb Pak Army had to say about the fate of B Company of his battalion at Atgram; "The
second prong {sic: 4/5 GR {FF} assault; first prong refers to 9 Guards attack at Zakiganj} on Major Azhar Alvi's B
Coy was more lethal.... B Coy was mauled completely. Major Alvi and his men laid their lives. Only few stragglers
could reach the Battalion Headquarters at Charkhai to tell the tale". Not that troops of B Company 31 Punjab Pak
Army were cowards but they had been annihilated by Gorkha's from none other than Fourth Battalion The Fifth
Gorkhas { Frontier Force } .

References

• Battle of Atgram . Bharat-rakshak.com

Battle of Basantar

The Battle of Basantar or the Battle of Barapind (December 4 - December 16, 1971) was one of the vital battles
fought as part of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 in the western sector of India. The Indian troops won a hard fought
battle that secured this area in the Punjab/Jammu sector. The name Battle of Basantar actually encompasses the
entire gamut of battles and skirmishes fought in the Shakargarh sector.

Location of battle

Basantar river is a tributary of the Ravi River that flows in the states of Punjab and Himachal Pradesh. This battle
took place in the Shakargarh Sector or the Shakargarh Bulge that includes Jarpal and surrounding areas. The bulge is
a protrusion of Pakistan boundary into Indian territory. It was a strategic area for both sides as it comprised road
links to Jammu from Punjab, which could be cut off by Pakistan if it wished to launch an offensive. It was also
economically vital for both sides as it straddled the fertile area of the Indus river belt.

Reasoning behind the battle

As the war began on the eastern front, Pakistan decided to open up the western sector to divert Indian troops from
the Eastern front in Bangladesh and prolong the war. Shakargarh bulge was a key strategic area for India as it
comprised road links between Jammu and Indian Punjab. Therefore, securing the region was crucial for India as
Pakistan had a military base nearby in Sialkot and therefore could have easily launched a massive invasion of the
Shakargarh region, cutting Jammu and Kashmir from the rest of India. The Indian Army maintained a base at
Pathankot, couple of hundred miles away from Shakargarh and quickly mobilized forces to defend the region. In an
attempt to gain advantage through the element of surprise, the Indian Army, though outnumbered, attacked Pakistani
positions in Jarpal area, triggering the Battle of Basantar.

Battle of Basantar 347

Battle plan

Both the opposing sides were led by their army's I Corps. Pakistan's I Corp included three infantry divisions, one
armoured division, an armoured brigade backed up by an unknown number of artillery and support units.
Furthermore Pakistan had the advantage of bringing in the reserve troops stationed nearby. The Reserves totaled 5
divisions, commanded by none other than Lt. General Irshad Hassan Khan, who as DMI (Director Military
Intelligence) had failed to act in the 1965 War in spite of intercepting Indian war plans. The Indian I Corps had three
infantry divisions, 2 Armoured Brigades, two independent artillery brigades and an engineer brigade. The aim of the
Indian Army was to bridge the Basantar river - the entry to which was fully land mined - and take control of the
Shakargarh bulge. It was reasoned that such an offensive would also secure the Pathankot army base from any
attacks from Pakistan.

The battle

The offensive in this sector was launched a few days after war broke out between the two nations. The Indian I
Corps moved into the sector to capture the key areas. The 54 Infantry Division and 16 Armoured Brigade moved
towards the area. As they advanced they were met by stiff Pakistani resistance. Meanwhile, the Indian division was
bogged down as they had not cleared all the mines or bridged the river. However, in a daring counter-attack by the
17 Poona Horse, 2nd Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal led his 3 tanks headlong into the mined area. A fierce tank battle
ensued where a Pakistani tank was taken down. After suffering initial setbacks, the 8th Armoured Brigade of
Pakistan was called in to help the Pakistani resistance in the area. However, the Indian Army continued the assault
and Lt. Arun Khetarpal with his 2 remaining tanks fought off and gunned down 10 tanks before he was killed in
action. Following the defeat in the battle, Pakistan launched a massive counter-attack which was planned into five
phases:

• Ph I To capture North Portion f Lalial Res forest and beat back any local counter-attack (2145h on 15 Dec 71)

• Ph II to capture Jarpal and Lohal by 0500h 16 dec 71.

• Ph III To Est Bridge H incl area North of Lalial Forest, Jarpal and Lohal on Ni 15/16 Dec 71.

• Ph IV To to Break out

After days of intense fighting that saw both sides gaining and losing territory, the battle was turning into a stalemate.
However, despite being at a quantitative and qualitative disadvantage, Indian troops made massive gains during the
final days of the battle and also repelled the Pakistani thrust. Towards the tail end of the battle, Pakistan Army's
Lieutenant Colonel Akram Raja made a frantic attempt to counter-attack the Indian stronghold near Shakargarh by
jumping into an old-style cavalry charge with his tanks. Launched in broad daylight in view of the Indian defensive
positions which were well secured, the campaign was a disaster. The Indians continued their military thrust deep
inside Pakistan and came threateningly close to the Pakistan Army base at Sialkot. Because of being outnumbered by
the advancing Indian Army, the Pakistan Army called-in the Pakistan Air Force to repel the Indian attack on the
base. Expecting another massive assault by the Indian Army, this time backed by Indian Air Force-support, and in no
position to launch any counter-offensive operations in the region, Pakistan offered unconditional surrender which led
to ceasefire. India had gained control of more than thousand square miles before finally settling down to 350 sq mi
(unknown operator: u'strong' km ) - 1000 km 2 of Pakistan territory that included approximately 500 villages.

Battle of Basantar 348

9 Engineer Regiment at Battle of Basantar

Pakistani tanks destroyed by Indian tanks inducted into enemy territory through a safe passage created by the
Sappers of 9 Engineer Regiment.

The 9 Engineer Regiment, which comprised South Indian troops affectionately called Thambis' (meaning 'Little
brother' in tamil), was placed under the command of 54 Infantry Division. The regiment comprised three field
companies, namely 404, 405 and 406, which were individually allotted to each of the three Infantry Brigades of 54
Infantry Division. At the commencement of the 1971 Indo-Pak war, 9 Engineer Regiment was to assist its sister
battalion, 5 Engineer Regiment, in support of its offensive in the Samba-Zafarwal sector. The advance was through a
seemingly impassable terrain, fortified at a number of places by Pakistan forces which had also laid extensive
minefields all along likely approach routes of ingress.

On December 5, 1971, at about 7.30 pm, 2/Lt NP Singh of 9 Engineer Regiment left with his task force for Dera Post
from where they started laying an operational track for the Indian offensive. At about 9.30 pm, the leading task force
entered Pakistani territory. The Regiment's Commanding Officer, Lt Col BT Pandit, after briefly supervising this
specialised task, proceeded ahead in order to guide his men. He came out very successfully in this delicate task. He
was later awarded with the coveted Vir Chakra.

On December 6, at about 2.30 pm, the track was completed up to Badala-Gujran in Pakistan. On December 7, for
breaching the minefield in area Thakurdwara, 404 Field Company of 9 Engineer Regiment was placed under the
command of 47 Infantry Brigade from 8 pm onwards. Nearby, the other field company of 9 Engineer Regiment - 405
Field Company-in conjunction with trawls, breached a vehicle safe lane, five metre-wide and 500 metre-long, in one
hour. Thereafter, a field company of 5 Engineer Regiment and a platoon of 404 Field Company widened this lane by
one metre.

The Sappers laying an operational track

On December 8, 404 Field Company, on completing its task with 47 Infantry Brigade, was earmarked for providing
engineer support to 91 Infantry Brigade. Simultaneously, 405 Field Company rendered engineering support for the
advance of 16 (Independent) Armoured Brigade in the area south and south-west of Bari. Meanwhile, 406 Field
Company extended the operational track beyond Tarakwal. On December 9, 404 Field Company was earmarked for
76 Infantry Brigade. The operational track was then connected to Bari following which the maintenance of the entire
length of track continued.

On the night of December 10/11, a platoon of 405 Field Company, deployed with 16 (Independent) Armoured
Brigade and commanded by Nb Sub Doraiswamy, was employed on minefield breaching task with trawls. At about
11pm, the build-up of armour into the bridgehead was seriously hampered as one of the damaged Indian tanks
obstructed traffic through the lane. Reopening of the lane was of utmost importance in order to successfully ensure
the defence of the bridgehead, which would have otherwise been seriously jeopardised.

Nb Sub Doraiswamy, on his own initiative, took a small party forward through the Pakistani artillery barrage and
succeeded in hand-breaching a detour round the stalled tank ensuring speedy induction of Indian armour and
essential infantry support weapons through the minefield and into the bridgehead. For displaying this exemplary
courage he was honoured with Vir Chakra.

On December 11, a diversion on Road Mawa-Pangdaur was constructed for the free movement of vehicles. Three
reconnaissance patrols of 404 Field Company advanced with 91 Infantry Brigade to three different points for
minefield reconnaissance. A second minefield lane was lined with the operational track on December 12.
Simultaneoulsy, 405 Field Company also cleared a minefield lane for the Armoured Brigade and, on December 13
night, it breached an enemy minefield with trawls 1,300 metre-deep, north of Lohara and further extended it up to
Lohara.

Battle of Basantar 349

On December 15, an Engineer Task Force comprising elements of 404, 405 and 406 Field Companies was grouped
with 47 Infantry Brigade for crossing Basantar in Lagwal area. The task involved extension of the operational track
from Lohara to Lagwal, breaching of an enemy minefield at Basantar, improvement of crossing places in the
riverbed and construction of crossing places on two boggy nullahs which were subsidiary obstacles.

The work commenced at 8 pm on December 15 and was carried out under intense Pakistani small arms, tanks and
artillery fire. The Task Force, under Maj VR Choudhary, was deployed for breaching minefield and constructing a
passage for tanks and other vehicles through the river Basantar in Lagwal area. On reaching the obstacle at about
8.30 pm, the Task Force found the situation very confusing on account of intense shelling and small arms fire which
was further aggravated because of scanty information about the obstacle itself. As conventional reconnaissance
would have taken considerable time, the Task Force Commander decided to disregard normal drills and safety
precautions and to send a small party on a wide frontage at normal walking speed.

Sensing the urgency of the situation, Capt Revinder Nath Gupta volunteered for this hazardous task and led a small
party of junior commissioned officer and two other ranks right up to the far edge of the minefield. Despite the grave
risk involved and very intense enemy fire, he and his party brought back vital data by 9.30 pm which enabled the
task to be successfully completed by 2.30 pm on December 16.

This enabled 17 Horse with two companies to be inducted into the bridgehead by 3 pm, well in time to take on the
enemy's counter-attacks and eventually led to the destruction of his armoured formation west of river Basantar.
Subsequently, when the enemy put up in a counter-attack, Capt Gupta personally guided tanks of 17 Horse through
the cleared minefield lane for which marking was still in progress. While working on improving the crossing, he was
among those killed on December 17 by enemy artillery fire which also claimed the lives of Majors VR Choudhary
and SS Malik, 2/Lt KM Mandanna, two junior commissioned officers and two other ranks. Maj SP Sharma and 12
other ranks were also wounded in the shelling. For their exemplary bravery, Maj VR Choudhary and Capt Ravinder
Nath Gupta were posthumously decorated with Maha Vir Chakra and Vir Chakra respectively.

Operations ceased at 8 pm on December 17. The War Diary of the regiment records: "After overcoming the initial
shock of the death of our gallant officers and junior commissioned officers, the Thambis 'morale is high and we are
prepared to breach more Basantars."

For their heroic exploits, the 9 Engineer Regiment was bestowed the Battle Honor "Basantar" and Theatre Honor
"Punjab" and is proudly called "Basantar Regiment or Basantar R" the companies called Barkhania, Chakra,
Thakurdwara and Lohra.

Conclusion

Invading Shakargarh bulge was one of the most crucial components of Pakistan's war strategy in the western sector.
Pakistan hoped that by occupying the bulge, the main link between Indian Army positions in Kashmir and Pathankot
would be cut-off, following which, it could easily invade Jammu and Kashmir. Pakistani military forces stationed in
Sialkot base would keep Pathankot at bay, thwarting any Indian attempts to recapture Shakargarh. However,
Pakistan's battle plans were jeopardized because of the ingenuity of a bold attack by the Indians. The Indian Army
attacked Pakistani positions in the region within four days of the declaration of the state of war, catching the
Pakistanis by complete surprise. After a few days of intense fighting, the Indians had not only pushed the Pakistanis
back, but had also come close to capturing Sialkot.

Pakistan Army generally regards this as their most humbling defeat, next only to the Battle of Longewala despite
some numerical and qualitative superiority over the opposing force. Apart from Battle of Chawinda were Pakistan
defended against Indian onslaughts despite being outnumbered, the entire military campaign in the region was not
successful for Pakistan. In this battle alone, India had destroyed close to 70 tanks losing only a few in the process.
Pakistan's Hamoodur Rahman Commission recommended that the Commander 1 Corps, who "surrendered to the
enemy without a fight" should "be tried for criminal and wilful neglect of duty" and poor conduct of operations, that
"seriously jeopardized the Army offensive in the south. The Indian Army, on the other hand, was criticized for

Battle of Basantar 350

their somewhat timid handling of the attack on Sialkot. The army, however, in its defense stated that it was planning
another assault on Sialkot with assistance from the Indian Air Force, when the cease-fire was declared.

This and other battles put paid to any hopes of bargaining for territory lost in East Pakistan, by capturing Indian
territory; in fact Pakistan had lost sizeable portions of land on both sides of the border.

Awards

• Param Vir Chakra, India's highest military honour was awarded to Lieutenant Arun Khetarpal, 17th Poona Horse

• Param Vir Chakra for Major Hoshiar Singh, 3rd Battalion, Bombay Grenadiers

• Unusually, Colonel Mohammed Akram Raja was awarded Hilal-i-Jurat by the Pakistan Government on the basis
of a citation written by Lieutenant Colonel, Ved Airy, who was Commanding Officer, 3 Grenadiers, Indian Army

• Mahavir Chakra, India's third highest military honour was awarded to Major Vijay Rattan Chaudhary MVC,
Madras Engineer Group Posthumously.

• Vir Chakra, India's Fifth highest military honour was awarded to Lieutenant Colonel B.T. Pandit, Madras Engineer
Group

• Vir Chakra, was awarded to Captain R.N Gupta, Madras Engineer Group Posthumously.

• Vir Chakra, was awarded to Naib Subedar Doraiswamy, Madras Engineer Group.

Notes

[1] The India-Pakistan War of 1971: A Modern War (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/KRG.htm)
[2] The Hamoodur-Rehman Commission Report (http://www.ppp.org.pk/dfc/H_Commission Report.html) - Hosted by Pakistan Peoples
Party

References

• Battle of Barapind-Jarpal (http://defencejournal.com/oct99/barapind.htm)

• Hamoodur Rahman Commission Report Chapter 5 (http://www.bangla2000.com/bangladesh/
Independence- War/Report-Hamoodur-Rahman/chapter5 . shtm)

• Poona Horse account of the battle (http://www.poonahorse.com/history_indopak2.htm)

• A newspaper format presentation of the battle (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/1971/Decl6/Art03.htm)

• Casualties during war (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Patton3.html)

• Maj. Gen. Ian Cardozo (2003). Param Vir - Our Heroes in Battle. Roli Books. ISBN 81-7436-262-2.

• (http://mod.nic.in/samachar/marchl5-06/hl2.htm)

Battle of Boyra 351

Battle of Boyra

The Battle of Boyra, on 22 November 1971, was the first engagement between the Air Forces of India and Pakistan
of the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. It is seen as a culmination of the Battle of Garibpur where the Indian Air
Force successfully engaged and destroyed strike elements of the Pakistan Air Force.

The battle

The battle took place between a four ship formation of the No. 22 squadron of the Indian Air Force equipped with
HAL built Gnats, against a four ship formation of Canadair Sabres of the PAF No. 14 Squadron.

No. 22 squadron, based in Kalaikunda AFB, was tasked with the air defence of Calcutta sector. The Squadron was
formed in October 1966 at Bareilly and had been equipped with the HAL built Ajeets immediately. It was part of 5
Wing at Kalaikunda from September 1968 onwards. The unit started operating a detachment under the command of
Wing Commander BS Sikand from the Dum Dum airfield in Calcutta which was activated from 22 September 1971.

Sikand had been taken as a prisoner of war in Pakistan in the 1965 War under curious circumstances after landing in
an abandoned airfield in Pasrur in Pakistan. PAF claim he surrendered to Flight Lt. Hakimullah from the No. 9
Squadron flying in his F-104 Starfighter. However, Sikand himself claimed that he had landed in the airfield
believing it to be an Indian airfield. This is half corroborated by the semi-official website which was set up by the
[then] serving Air Commodore Kaiser Tufail. Tufail writes that Hakimullah had not seen the Gnat so cannot claim to
have 'forced' the surrender. He does however speculate that even though the F-104s may not have seen the Gnat, the
Gnat pilot may have seen the F-104s.

The Indian air force later would award Sikand the AVSM, which may indicate that they were more prepared to
believe Sikand's version over PAF's. Sikand's aircraft was seen on the radar scope at 230 Signals Unit, Amritsar,
commanded by Wing Commander K. Dandapani AVSM (retd.) as veering off-course and losing altitude well before
others in his formation reached Sargodha and put down at Pasrur. Sikand landed a fully fueled, armed and untouched
Folland Gnat at Pasrur which to this day is on display at a PAF museum.

Background to the ground battle

The initial skirmishes grew progressively bloody and on 21 November a group of Mukti Bahini assisted by Indian
Army elements established a foothold in the Boyra Peninsula in what was then East Pakistan. This turned into full
scale battle Battle of Garibpur when the Pakistani army brought a squadron of M24 Chaffee tanks into the battle.
These were promptly taken on by a Squadron of PT-76 Tanks from the 45 Cavalry regiment. In the ensuing battle,
13 of the Pakistani tanks were destroyed or incapacitated by the Indian forces which lost four of its own tanks
damaged or destroyed, but had been able to draw the battle into its second day.

Facing a reversal on the ground, the Pakistani Army commander called for air support. This only materialised on the
second day of the battle.

The first intrusion of four Sabres were picked up in the Jessore area on Indian radar at 0811 hours. These were the

Canadair Sabres operated by No. 14 PAF squadron and were more powerful version of the Canadian built Sabre

powered by the Orenda engine. It has been alleged by later historians that these were smuggled into Pakistan through

a clandestine deal organised between Germany and Iran., Online journal of the Pakistan Institute for Air Defence

ni
Studies. Accessed on 13 August 2006.</ref> No. 22 Squadron scrambled four Gnats from Dum Dum. However the

Sabres had flown back to their territory by the time the Gnats could make it to Boyra.

A second raid by the Pakistanis followed at 1028 hours. An interception could not be carried out in time and the
Sabres went off unscathed. A third strike was carried out in the afternoon on the Indian Army and Mitrobaihini
positions at Chowgachha Mor. This time, however, luck had run out.

Battle of Boyra 352

In late November 2 PAF Sabres strafing Indian troops were downed by Ajeets, marking the first air combat between
the two sides since 1965.

The pick-up

At around 1448 hours, the radar picked up the four Sabres as they pulled up in a north westerly direction to about
2000 ft (unknown operator: u'strong 1 m) above ground level. Within a minute, the ORP at Dum Dum was
scrambled. Four Gnats took off by 145 1 hours led by the formation leader Fit Lt Roy Andrew Massey. It was less
than three minutes from the time the Sabres were detected by the radar.

The Fighter controller in the sector was Fg Offr KB Bagchi. His voice went over the radio "One O'Clock, 10
Nautical Miles". Massey Replied "Contact, I can see them pull up". The Sabres seemed to have already carried out
several passes in the eight minutes it took the Gnats to reach the Boyra Sailent. The Sabres were commencing to start
another dive - they were at about 1800 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m) altitude and diving down to 500' in an
attack run.

"Right wing over attack", shouted Bagchi, "half twelve, thousand yards".

"Contact" replied Massey.

"Request type", was Bagchi's query.

"Sabres"

"Shoot" was the command from the Fighter Controller.

It was 1459 hours.

Aerial engagement

The four Gnats separated into two sections and dived into the attack to bounce the Sabres. The first section of Gnats
was of Massey and Fg Offr SF Soarez as his No. 2. The second section consisted of Fit Lt MA Ganapathy and Fg
Offr D Lazarus. As the Gnats dived in, a section of two Sabres pulled out of the attack and placed themselves in an
awkward position, just in front of Ganapathy and Lazarus. Ganapathy called out on the R/T "Murder Murder
Murder". Both the pilots did not waste time on this perfect opportunity. Cannon shells slammed into the pair of
Sabres and both the Sabres were badly damaged. The Pakistani pilots Parvez Mehdi Qureshi and Khaleel Ahmed had
only one option- to eject. They drifted down to Boyra by parachute. The wreckage of the abandoned Sabres fell near
the village of Bongaon. Massey, in the meantime, pulled up over Ganapathy and Lazarus to latch onto another Sabre.
The Sabre pilot, Wg. Cdr Chaudhury- in a skillful dogfighting move- broke into Massey's attack forcing him to take
a high angle-off burst. He missed his target. Taking aim, Massey let off another burst at 700 yards (unknown
operator: u'strong' m) and hit him in the port wing. By that time, Massey's starboard cannon had stopped firing, but
the Sabre streaked back into Pakistani territory billowing smoke and fire. Massey himself realised that he was well
over East Pakistani airspace in his chase. He turned around and regrouped with the rest of his formation. Later
reports confirmed that Massey's victim, Wg. Cdr Chaudhury, showing considerable courage, had managed to fly his
badly damaged Sabre back to Tezgaon Airfield just outside Dhaka. Chaudhury himself claimed to have shot down
one of the Gnats.

Battle of Boyra 353

Aftermath

• The Indian pilots were each awarded the Vir Chakra. The Fighter Controller Fg Offr KB Bagchi was awarded
Vayu Sena Medal. Wg. Cdr. Sikand was awarded the Ati Vishisht Seva Medal (AVSM).

• Massey would later command No. 224 Squadron of the IAF which operated MiG-23MF.

• Donald Lazarus went on to become a Flight commander on No. 102 Squadron of the IAF- The Trisonics- which
operated India's top secret Mig-25s.

• Parvez Qureshi would later go on to be the CAS of PAF.

• Some dubious reports and analysis later suggest that the Pakistani Pilots were under orders not to fire back.
However, what is beyond doubt is that at least Qureshi and Ahmed would not have had the opportunity to do so
had the orders been given.

• Tezgaon airfield was subjected to a nihilistic offensive campaign by the Indian Airforce and was rendered
inoperable by the third day after the formal declaration of war on 3 December 1971.

• PAF No. 14 Squadron defied orders to destroy their aircraft at the time of surrender on 14 December. These were
captured by the Indian Army Mitrobahini and donated to the nascent Bangladesh Air Force.

Notes and references

[1] http://www.pafcombat.com PAF Combat

[2] Cooper T, with Khan Syed Shaiz Ali. Air Combat Information Group. Indian-Subcontinent Database India - Pakistan War, 1971;
Introduction. 29 October 2003. Lacking numbers to match Indian numerical superiority, the residue F-86s were complemented by 90
Canadair F.Mk.6 Sabres. These were bought in 1967, by Iran - via a Swiss intermediary -from Germany, without a US end-user certificate
(but possibly with the knowledge of the U.S. government).

The reported price of the total package was $10 million. Upon their arrival in Iran, the Imperial Iranian Air Force -
which operated only a handful of US -supplied F-86s at the time - claimed they were unable to maintain and to
overhaul them. As a result, all the German Sabres were sent to Pakistan and they never came back. Instead, they
were integrated into three PAF units, and by 3 December 1971 at least 88 remained intact, of which 74 were
operational. A total of 48 of these were wired for Sidewinders: the PAF thus had a fleet of exactly 72 72
Sidewinder-compatible F-86F/Sabre F.Mk.6s. http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_326.shtml URL
Accessed on 13 August 06

[3] The Encyclopedia of 20th Century Air Warfare Edited by Chris Bishop (amber publishing 1997, republished 2004 pages 384-387 ISBN
1-904687-26-1)

External links

• Bharat Rakshak Indian Air Force 1971 War Section (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War)

Battle of Chamb 354

Battle of Chamb

Battle of Dhalai

The Battle of Dhalai was a battle in the Bangladesh Liberation War. It was an Indian attack from Tripura into East
Pakistan to stop Pakistani cross-border shelling.

It ended in a major Indian victory.

Battle of Kushtia

The battle of Kushtia can mean two incidents, both in what is now Bangladesh:-

• A battle on 19 April 1971 between East Bengali rebels and Pakistani forces. See http://www.time.com/time/
archive/printout/0,23657,905021,00.html.

• An Indian attack from West Bengal into East Pakistan in the Bangladesh Liberation War. See http://www.
bharat-rakshak. com/ 1 97 1/Dec09/Art03 .htm

Capture of Kishangarh Fort

The capture of the Kishangarh in Rajasthan State India took place during the 1965 War between India and
Pakistan. Its capture was one of the most important actions of the Desert Theater in that war and one of the finest
examples of the use of local militia in the history of the Sub-Continent.

Background

The outpost is around 11 kilometers (Lat 27.871 N,Lon 70.563 E) inside Indian territory, in the so called Jaisalmer
Bulge. It is a small mud Structure 70 by 60 meters across. It sits 22 km east of the town of Tanot towards the
International border. It also sits on the only road linking any part of Rajasthan with the Pakistani city of Rahim Yar
Khan.

The Desert Sector was a mere sideshow in the 1965 Indo-Pakistan War. Both sides had little experience in desert
fighting at the time, and moreover the main industrial, and economic heartland of Pakistan and India were to the
north. As a result when war came the Indians main effort would be against Lahore and Sialkot in the Punjab.
However the Indians left some forces in the region with the aim of launching local offensives. Pakistani army troops
in the region were already very stretched, having to defend a sector nearly a thousand km in length. To counteract
this effort, the commander Pakistan Army Rangers asked the local people for help.

Capture of Kishangarh Fort 355

The Hurs

The Hurs were and are the main tribe living in this area. A proud and fierce people, the Hurs had given the British a
difficult time. They had rebelled during World War II against British rule [1]. At the time of the 1965 War the
spiritual leader of the Hur was the Pir Pagaro.

The Hurs had earlier not joined the Pakistan Army in any numbers, however with the coming of war, thousands
volunteered to fight against the Indians. The Hurs were (due to constraints of finances as well as time) given only
basic training and armed with light weapons such as machine guns and assault rifles. The militia was placed under
the Pakistani military and para-military forces operating in the sector (known collectively as the "Desert Force"). The
Hur militia was commanded by the Faqir Jamal Mangrio.

The battle

The war began on 6 September 1965 and the hostilities in this sector commenced on September the 8th. Initially the
Desert Force and the Hur was placed in a defensive role, a role for which they were well suited as it turned out. The
Hur were familiar with the terrain and the local area and possessed many essential desert survival skills which their
opponents (and indeed their comrades in the Pakistan Army) did not. Fighting as mainly light infantry, the Hur
inflicted many casualties on the Indian forces as they entered Sindh. The Hurs were also employed as skirmishers,
harassing the Indians LOC, a task they often undertook on camels. As the battle wore on the Hurs and the Desert
Force were increasingly used to attack and capture Indian villages inside Rajasthan. It was in this vein that an assault
on Kishangarh fort was launched. The attack surprised the Indians and the fort was captured after several days of
bitter fighting.

Pakistani Troops at Fort Kishangarh

Pakistan Army Officers in front of Fort Kishangarh

Artist's depiction of the Pakistani Victory

References

• History of Indo-Pak War of 1965. Lt Gen Mahmud Ahmed (ret). ISBN 969-8693-01-7

Battle of Garibpur 356

Battle of Garibpur

The Battle of Garibpur fought on 20—21 November 1971 was one of the first engagements of between Indian and
Pakistani troops during the Bangladesh Liberation War prior to the initiation of hostilities on 3 December 1971. An
intimately entangled part of this battle is the air battle over the Boyra Salient, the actual Battle of Boyra where the
Indian Air Force successfully engaged and destroyed strike elements of the Pakistan Air Force. The battle took place
prior to the start of hostilities in the western front of India (known as Indo-Pakistani War of 1971). Indian troops
partly aided by Mukti Bahini (Bengali guerrillas) defeated Pakistan Army in the battle thus capturing key areas and
severely denting Pakistani morale.

Background

After months of internal tensions in East Pakistan (current day Bangladesh) and a clampdown on Bengali
nationalists, many independence fighters had organised themselves into a guerilla army. Called the Mukti Bahini,
these rebels were aided by India in their struggle. After initial success over Pakistani troops there had been some
relative calm in the region and further Indian assistance was sought to turn the tide. India thus started to involve itself
deeper into the conflict brewing in the east and stationed its troops near the border.

The Boyra salient located inside the North West part of East Pakistan consisting of Garibpur village was at an
important crossroads for both nations. Its control was thus vital as it included a highway to Jessore from India.

The battle

On 21 November, the 14 Punjab Battalion - supported by a squadron of 14 PT-76 tanks from 45 Cavalry moved in to
capture the areas around Garibpur inside Pakistani territory. The move was supposed to be a surprise, but following a
skirmish with patrol troops of both armies the previous day, Pakistan was alerted to this impending attack. Pakistan
immediately responded in numbers when its 107 Infantry Brigade - supported by 3rd Independent Armoured
Squadron, equipped with M24 Chaffee light tanks was launched. Possessing numerical superiority, Pakistan troops
were in position to decimate the Indian intrusion. But the Punjab Battalion, known for its long history of valor, dug
in and poised themselves for a counter attack. Retaining the Infantry and the Recoilless rifles in a defensive position,
the tanks were sent forward to ambush the oncoming Pakistani charge. In the next couple of hours Indian troops
pounded the Pakistani attack who couldn't pinpoint the source of attacks due to poor visibility on account of fog.
Undeterred, Pakistan tanks and infantry were thrown into an offensive against Indian defensive positions. But once
again these were repulsed by the Indians and resulted in heavy casualties for Pakistan. By noon more than 1 1 tanks
lay smouldering with a further 3 captured in working condition whilst losing six of the PT-76 tanks. The 107 Brigade
too had been severely battered with most of its original strength depleted while Indians reported casualties of 40.

But the final chapter of the battle was yet to be written. Pakistan Army had called for help from the Pakistan Air
Force which soon responded with attacks on Indian positions. At around 3:00 p.m. three F-86 Sabres of the PAF
flew in to provide close air support and hit the Indian positions using machine guns and rocket fire. The Indian Air
Force however was prepared for such an attack and was thrust to neutralise the threat from the skies. Flying in their
Gnats the four pilots were soon engaged in a dog fight against their Pakistani counterparts. In the first engagement of
the two air powers in six years, all the three Sabres were downed in minutes. Two of the pilots ejected safely but
were captured by the Mukti Bahini and taken to India as POWs.

Battle of Garibpur 357

Aftermath

The battle coming just weeks before the official start of the war had an unexpected turn of events. Even the allied
forces comprising Mukti Bahini and the Indian Army had only dreamt of such a victory given the overwhelming
odds they were up against in this battle. A single battalion had been able to destroy an entire brigade supported by an
air force and artillery. This and victories in other battles nearby like Battle of Hilli ensured that the Northern sector
of East Pakistan was virtually in the hands of Mitro Bahini (Allied forces) before the war was declared. The morale
of the Pakistanis dipped and following the mass defections of Bengalis, it was only a matter of time before they
would face ultimate defeat

Interestingly one of the captured PAF pilots, Parvez Mehdi Qureshi later on became the Chief of Air Staff of the
Pakistan Air Force.

Sources

• Official War History of 197 1 , History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India, published at
Bharat Rakshak.

• Report by the Hamoodur Rahman Commission, Pakistan

• India - Pakistan War, 1971; Introduction , by Tom Cooper, with Khan Syed Shaiz Ali, 23 October 2003, Air
Combat Information Group (ACIG)

External links

Ml

• Bharat Rakshak with photos

Battle of Gazipur

The Battle of Gazipur was a battle that took place between the advancing Indian Army and the defending 22 Baluch
Regiment of the Pakistan Army between 4th and 5 December 1971 in the opening stages of the eastern campaign of
the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The site of the battle was the Gazipur Tea estate near Kalaura, Sylhet District of
what was then East Pakistan. This battle was a prelude to the Battle of Sylhet.

4/5 December 1971

By 27 November 1971 evening 4/5 Gurkha Rifles (Frontier Force) had fortified themselves at Kadamtal, a place
closer to the border opposite the Kalaura/Maulvi Bazar Sector of the Sylhet Division of East Pakistan. Small-scale
attacks were to be employed to capture territory. The 59th Mountain Brigade was to operate, as part of the 8th
Mountain Division plan, in tandem, possibly for thrust to Sylhet. The area had rolling hills with tea gardens dotting
the area along the border. Further west, inside East Pakistan, low hills obscured any observations beyond them, had
provided an excellent defensive and observation point into the Indian side of the border. The hills tapered just East of
Kalaura and the plains of the Sylhet division started from here. Kalaura was a communications centre and rail head
ten kilometres in depth, was connected to Maulvi Bazar; along the axis Dharmanagar - Gazipur - Maulvi Bazar -
Sylhet.

Battle of Gazipur 358

Objectives

The task given to the 8 Mountain Division was at this stage was:-

• Capture of the border posts along axes Dharmanagar - Gazipur-Kalaura, Dharmanagar- Juri by the 59th Mountain
Brigade. The 81st Mountain Brigade was to operate along the Shamshernagar- Fenchuganj- Maulvi Bazar axis.

• Capture of Sylhet by multi-pronged attacks by the division.

Pakistan's 313rd Infantry Brigade, part of Pakistan's 14th Infantry Division, was located at Maulvi Bazar. Its 202
Infantry Brigade had moved to Sylhet, while its third brigade was covering Bhairab Bazar and the Ashuganj area
further south. The 22 Baluch was defending the area ear Sagarnal, Gazipur, Kalaura, and Juri with additional
company each of Scouts and EPCAF. One of this battalion's companies was deployed along the Dharmanagar- Juri
axis with couple of border posts. Border Out Post of a platoon plus strength of regular troops and EPCAF at
Sagarnal, a company at Gazipur with about a platoon each of Scouts and EPCAF, battalion headquarter at Kalaura
and remainder troops at Maulvi Bazar. Thing not known at that time was that 22 Baluch had additional
Reconnaissance and Support elements which had tremendously augmented firepower of their defences.

Indian 59 Mountain Brigade Plan envisaged capture of Sagarnal Border Out Post by 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier
Force} as preliminary operations. The 9th Guards were to capture Juri, and the 6th Rajput was to capture Gazipur
and advance up to Kalaura. 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier Force} as reserve for 6 Rajput operation and further task to
be given as the battle progressed. It was planned that once Kalaura was secured, operations of both brigades of the
division will be coordinated.

The attack

At Gazipur, Dharmanagar - Kadamtal — Sagarnal — Gazipur — Kalaura road passed through the area dominated by
Gazipur Tea Factory Manager's Bungalow and heights to the Southeast. The row of tea plantation created a maze
and these alleys were covered by automatic fire. To its North was high ground with good observation of the area,
bunkers around it and characterized by Banana Plantation and called Kela-Ka-Bagicha. On 3 December 1971 around
2100 hours, 6 Rajput attacked Gazipur but met with stiff resistance. An odd hour before first light it was apparent
that the attack had failed and it was too late to employ reserves.

At this stage 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier Force} was warned for task for the capture of Gazipur next night; 4/5
December 1971. Day of 4th was utilized for reconnaissance. With the attack launched the previous night, the
Pakistanis were sensitive in the area, and had reorganized their defences to prepare for any an attack from any
direction. They were supported by artillery guns. The appreciated deployment of Pakistan's 22 Baluch Company plus
at Gazipur was; Kela-Ka-Bagicha; Platoon with section of Scouts; Manager's Bungalow, Platoon with section Scouts
and MMG's; Factory, Company Headquarter with a platoon, Scouts and Reconnaissance and Support elements. The
Pakistani defences were based on built up area and well prepared bunkers. 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier
Force }planned capture of localities in phases; Kela-Ka-Bagicha by Delta Company; Manager's Bungalow by Alfa
Company; Factory by Bravo and Charlie Company; CO 2 {Shyam Kelkar} was made overall commander of Factory
assault by B and C Company.

Delta Company led the move to the objective. By about 2030 hours the advancing column reached the height
immediately North of Kela-Ka-Bagicha and Pakistanis opened up with artillery, MMG and LMG's. It was almost
simultaneously that the company charged at about 2045 hours. Apparently Pakistanis had got wind of the attack at
the last minute and their reaction was violent. During the hand to hand fighting casualties occurred. Delta did its bit,
captured Kela-ka- Bagicha. However, Company commander was injured during the attack. The next objective
Manager's Bungalow had literary been turned into a fortress with bunkers strewn around the area. The firing was on
fixed lines, covering available gaps in the tea plantation rows and the approach from Kela-Ka-Bagicha. Because of
loss of radio contact Alfa Company progress was not known and as such Bravo Company was tasked to capture
Manager's Bungalow. Alfa Company didn't know about Bravo Company being employed in its place from the

Battle of Gazipur 359

planned direction. Luckily Alfa's had taken a slight detour and angled with thrust on the rear side while Bravo
targeted it from Kela-Ka-Bagicha side. Casualties were suffered which included Coy Commander of Bravo
Company but not before Manager's Bungalow had been captured. There, however, was one outstation silent; that of
CO 2 {Major Shyam Kelkar}. Well along the direction and path of attack CO 2 {Major Shyam Kelkar} had led the
attack, was struck with a bullet and had died on the spot.

The last and decisive phase of attack on the Tea Factory can best be narrated in the words of the Commanding
Officer {Late Brigadier A B Harolikar, MVC}:

At this stage I found myself along with my Reconnaissance Group between Manager's Bungalow and the
Factory Gate. The Factory gate was hardly 100 metres in front of me. But an MMG had covered this gate
effectively by fire. I noticed a Group of 5-6 jawans {Soldiersjin front of me and some jawans{ Soldiers}
behind me. We had all automatically taken cover in a longish {but narrow in width, like a drain} nullah, which
seemed to be dry and shallow. But its shallow was adequate to protect us from flying splinters of bursting

artillery shells and whizzing small arms fire Only Charlie Company under its company commander had so

far not been committed by me in an assault. But I was not aware of what casualties it may have suffered in the

relentless artillery pounding and the MMG firing continuously Any further delay in assaulting Factory

area would tilt the balance in favour of the enemy I knew that I may not survive the next moment, but I

was certain that the Factory area would be ours; for hardly I had rushed forward a few yards when I found that
the soldiers who had taken cover in front of me, were now rushing ahead of me, joined by others from behind
and those emerging from the darkness. Before I knew what was happening, the small group in front of me had
rushed through the gate- through the jaws of death. Who were they? The daredevils? To this day I do not
know. It was dark and I could not see the faces. Having rushed inside the factory area we were all dispersed
inside in different directions to face any unforeseen circumstances. Enemy soldiers manning the MMG's and
other defences fled leaving some of their dead and wounded besides weapons, ammunition and equipment.

Aftermath

Finally the Gazipur Tea Estate location had been captured and with this attack the command and control of 22
Baluch was split, the battalion headquarters slipped away from Kalaura, as 4/5 Gorkha Rifles {Frontier Force}
advanced to Kalaura and occupied it on 6 December 1971. The Pakistani's had suffered heavy casualties; 15 dead
Pakistani soldiers were found on the objective at Gazipur, and the Pakistanis carried away at least 15 of their dead
and approximately 40 wounded. The Indians too had paid a heavy price; one officer- CO 2 {Major SG Kelkar} and
10 other ranks killed, 4 officers (Jassi Rawat, Viru Rawat, Sahrawat and YB), two JCOs (Including Delta Senior
JCO Subedar Bal Bahadur Thapa) and 57 other ranks injured.

References

[1] Battle Of Sylhet. Defence India (http://www.defenceindia.com/defenceind/battle_sylhet.html)

Battle of Hilli 360

Battle of Hilli

The Battle of Hilli or the Battle of Bogra was a major battle fought in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 and
Bangladesh Liberation War. It is generally regarded as the most pitched battle that took place in East Pakistan, now
Bangladesh. The battle of Hilli took place between 23 November 1971 and 11 December 1971, although the final
surrender took place on 18 December 1971.

The battle

The main objective of the Indian Army was to control Bogra, thereby cutting off Pakistan forces in the north from
the rest of East Pakistan. The best way of getting to Bogra was through Hilli. The frontal assault on the Pakistan
fortifications took a huge toll on both sides - the Indian Army suffering the greater number of casualties - before
Indian forces finally broke through by establishing a block in the read of Pakistani forces in Hilli, upon which the
4FF Battalion in Hilli was withdrew for the defence of Bogra.

Indian forces

The Indian side consisted of the 20 Indian Mountain Division led by Maj-Gen. Lachhman Singh. The constituent
units of this division were 66 Brigade, 165 Brigade, 202 Brigade and 340 Brigade (all infantry units), 3 Armoured
Brigade, 471 Engineer Brigade and two artillery brigades augmented by 33 Corps Artillery. The ground troops were
aided by aerial support provided by the Indian Air Force which had acquired air superiority in the east and were
armed with rockets, guns and 100 lb bombs.

Pakistani forces

On the Pakistan side, the Area of Responsibility (AOR) was on 205 Brigade of Pakistan Army led by Brigadier (later
retired as Major General) Tajammul Hussain Malik. He had joined the brigade 4 days ago, when he volunteered to
leave GHQ, Rawalpindi and command troops in the East Pakistan. He put up a stiff resistance that earned praise
from many quarters.

Major events of the battle

Malik had placed screens along the railway line nearby and at the Railway Station complex in the area. The
defensive positions were sited in depth to cover all routes leading into East Pakistan. They fought the entire Indian
division and the Mukti Bahini soldiers until the Indians decided to bypass Hilli and establish a block in its rear. Brig.
Malik then withdrew the forces in Hilli to avoid being cut off and to defend for the Bogra itself.

Bogra was surrounded from all sides by the greater numbers of the Indian army and the Mukti Bahini. Brig. Malik's
resistance continued even after the Pakistani Eastern Command surrendered in Dacca on 16 December. He, in his
staff car with flags and stars uncovered went around the streets of Bogra motivating his soldiers to keep fighting. The
Indian army had by then, surrounded the city of Bogra. The Brigade Major along with some 50 ORs surrendered but
the Brigadier still full of vigour refused to give up.

Brig. Malik ordered the rest of his brigade to break out in small groups to Naogong, where one of his units was still
fighting on. However en-route, his jeep was ambushed, severely injuring him and his orderly. Muktis captured both
of them and subjected them to torture. They broke his arms and split his head after which he was taken
semi-conscious to an Indian army hospital. Major General Nazar Hussain Shah, was especially flown in from Natore
for the surrender of this brigade on 18 December 1971, due to the refusal of Brigadier Malik. Upon return from
captivity, he was the only brigadier out of 32 or so who fought the 1971 War in East Pakistan to have been promoted
to Major General rank.

Battle of Hilli 361

Significance

The battle was a significant one as it involved great personal valour on both sides. This is highlighted by the fact that
soldiers on either side won their nation's highest military honours. One of the infantry battalions of the 20 Indian
Mountain Division 5/1 1 Gorkha Rifles distinguished itself here and later earned the battle honour Bogra for itself,
the commanding officer of the Indian battalion, then Lt Col F T Dias later rose to the rank of Lieutenant General in
the Indian Army. In fact other than the battalion commander one of the company commanders, then Maj J B S
Yadava become Lieutenant General and Maj Abjeet Mamik rose to become a Brigadier and Capt B K Bopanna later
become Lieutenant General in the Indian Armed Forces, which is a unique honour to the soldiers of an army.

This battle was also unique in that it had started before the official start of the India Pakistan war but continued right
until the formal surrender of Pakistan. Unlike other battles in the East where the Indian army dominated, Pakistan
forces gave a very good account of themselves before the combined might of the Indian military managed to occupy
the area. The Indians were so impressed by General Tajammul Hussain Malik's fighting tactics that after the war the
Indians had sent a team of experts to study the battle on the ground and determine reasons why such a heavy force as
described above could not break through that sector until the end.

Awards

• Lance Naik Albert Ekka, 14 Guards of the Indian Army, who fought in this battle, received the only Param Vir
Chakra to be awarded in the Eastern Sector during the 1971 War.

• Major Muhammad Akram Shaheed of Pakistan won the Nishan-E-Haider, the highest military honour of the
country.

• Maj J B S Yadava ( later Lt General ) and Maj Abjeet Mamik (later Brigadier), both then company commanders
of 5/1 1 Gorkha Rifles of the Indian Army were awarded Vir Chakra the third highest galangry award of India.

• Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier) Tariq Anees Malik of Pakistan received Sitar-e-Jurat.

Notes

[1] Battle of Hilli (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/sqn-37.htm)

References

• General A.A.K.Niazi (1998). Betrayal of East Pakistan. Manohar Publishers. ISBN 81-7304-256-X.

• Indian Air Force (http://www.indianairforce.nic.in/afsqnn37.htm)

• Defence Journal of Pakistan (http://defencejournal.com/oct99/battle-hilli.htm)

Further reading

1 . Lehl, Major General Lachhman Singh. Indian Sword Strikes in East Pakistan

2. Lehl, Major General Lachhman Singh. Victory in Bangladesh

3. Malik, Major General Tajamal Hussain, Story of my Struggle

Defence of KamalPur 362

Defence of KamalPur

The Defence of Kamalpur refers to the battle fought at Kamalpur near the border in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971
and Bangladesh Liberation War. The Defence of Kamalpur, a hamlet on the border, by Captain Ahsan Malik and his
140 men would be an epic in any army's history. He had seventy soldiers of 31 Baloch and the same number of
para-military troops; all fought magnificently against great odds.

Battle

Attacks against Pakistani border outposts in the north had begun in July. These were mounted by Mukti Bahini,
mainly former members of East Pakistan's regular forces, but failed to make any impression. Further attacks on
Kamalpur, a kilometre from the border, came on 22 October and 14 November, the latter being made by 13 Guards
Battalion (of Kler's brigade), which established blocking positions to the south. Malik was cut off and his CO, Lt.
Col. Sultan Mahmood tried to relive him and the other two outposts (Naqshi and Baromari, to the east) without
success. On 29 November (all this before 'war' broke out) Major Ayub of 31 Baloch tried to resupply Malik's tiny
garrison but failed.

Kler tried to take Kamalpur on the run, using Mukti Bahini troops, and failed. He then mounted a battalion

attack by 1 Maratha Light Infantry on the forty men and four 120mm mortars of 83 Mortar battery and overran them,

suffering one casualty. Kler then 'decided to lay siege to Kamalpur and break down its will to resist', according to

General Sukhwant Singh. Getting wary because of casualties, successive failures and demoralisation among the

attacking troops, he decided to starve out the garrison by a prolonged siege. A brigade is demoralised by a

company? Sukhwant Singh knew that there was no Pakistani Artillery in this sector, only two troops of mortars, but

states that Kler was '...further handicapped inasmuch as one of his battalions had just been reorganised from (a unit)

raised initially for counterinsurgency with no support elements. In tackling a weak platoon post, another battalion

brought out some weaknesses of leadership under fire. The battalion reached its objective with relatively few

casualties. As expected, the enemy turned mortar fire on the objective. A mortar bomb landed on the trench occupied

mi
by four men close to the commanding officer (Colonel). He saw limbs fly and lost his nerve.

On the other hand Captain Ahsan Malik did not lose his nerve when much worse was happening in his area and he
was fighting an unwinnable battle against overwhelming odds.

At about 0930 on 4 December, 'after withdrawing his troops from close siege, Kler 'hammered the post with seven
sorties of MiG 21s firing rockets and cannon and this was repeated twice later in the day'. Maj. General Gurbux
Singh (commander of the north region) himself entered affairs by sending Captain Malik a note by a Mukti Bahini
courier:'. ..whatever you decide to do we have every intention of eliminating Kamalpur post. It is to save you and our
side casualties this message is being sent to you...'. He sent another note after a further air strike and this was met, as
had been the other messages, by increased firing by Malik's men. But it could not go on, Malik received the order by
radio to surrender, which he did at 1900 that day.

'He had,'as Sukhwant Singh goes on to say, 'put up a courageous stand. ...and surrendered after holding a brigade of
besiegers for 21 days.. ..Sam Manekshaw sent a personal congratulatory message to Malik commending his defiant
stand.' and wrote 'Militarily his performance was excellent'.

Maj. Gen. Gurbux Singh decided to meet Malik personally but, while being driven towards Kamalpur by Kler to
meet the brave Captain, their jeep went over a mine and he was badly wounded.

When Captain Ahsan Malik's force was taken in, it was found that his company was nearly out of ammunition,
barring a few hand grenades and a few bullets each. They were ready to fling themselves on the enemy with daggers
and bayonets if it came to that, until they realized that the piece of territory they were defending was already a
different country. Nothing remained there to die for.

Defence of KamalPur 363

When he returned to Pakistan, he was decorated with a Sitara-e-Jurrat which is the third highest military award in
Pakistan. Later on, Field Marshal Manekshaw acknowledged the bravery of his men in a letter written to his
Pakistani counterpart.

Awards

• Captain Ahsan Malik, 31 Baloch of Pakistan Army, was decorated with a Sitara-e-Jurrat.

Notes

[1] Brian Cloughley (2002). A History Of The Pakistan Army: Wars And Insurrections Second Edition With A New Chapter On The Kargil Issue

(http://books.google.com/books?id=RLrkslWxacwC&pg=PA202). Lancer, p. 202. ISBN 978-81-7062-283-3. . Retrieved 27 February

2012.
[2] Dr Nuran Nabi (27 August 2010). Bullets of '71: A Freedom Fighter's Story (http://books.google.com/books?id=F_OUc-TvGOIC&

pg=PA356). AuthorHouse. pp. 356-. ISBN 978-1-4520-4378-4. . Retrieved 27 February 2012.
[3] Sukhwant Singh (19 July 2009). India's Wars Since Independence (http://books. google. com/books?id=jlVawuyUS-cC&pg=PA86).

Lancer Publishers, p. 162. ISBN 978-1-935501-13-8. . Retrieved 27 February 2012.
[4] Economic and political weekly (http://books.google.com/books?id=ddgnAAAAMAAJ). Sameeksha Trust.. 1977. p. 1325. . Retrieved 27

February 2012.
[5] Lachhman Singh (1991). Victory in Bangladesh (http://books.google.com/books?id=MKYbAAAAIAAJ). Natraj Publishers, p. 151. .

Retrieved 27 February 2012.
[6] Times of India (1971). OFFICIAL 1971 WAR HISTORY (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/ARMY/History/1971War/PDF/

1971Chapterl3.pdf). History Division, Ministry of Defence, Government of India. .

References

• Sukhwant Singh (1981). India's wars since Independence-The Liberation of Bangladesh, Vol. 1. Vikas Publishing
House. ISBN 0-7069-1057-5.

• Brian Cloughley (2006). A history of the Pakistan Army - Wars and Insurrections Third Edition. Ameena Saiyid,
Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-547334-5.

Further reading

1 . Brian Cloughley. A History of Pakistan Army Wars and Insurrections Third Edition

2. Major General Sukhwant Singh. India's Wars Since Independence Vol.1 : The Liberation of Bangladesh

Khemkaran

364

Khemkaran

Khem Karan

city

y /7\

-, (

jfJ~,

's

* ___

Khem Karan

Location of Khem Karan
in Punjab and India

Coordinates
Country

State
District(s)

Population
Time zone

31°10'N74°40'E
India

Punjab
Tarn Taran

11938(2001)
1ST (UTC+05:30)

Khem Karan (Punjabi: trHc(cj6) is a town and a nagar panchayat in Tarn Taran district in the Indian state of Punjab.
It was the site of a major tank battle in 1965 resulting it also being known as the graveyard of tanks.
The 1965 Indo-Pakistani War was witness to the largest tank battle in military history since World War II. This
battle led to the creation of Patton Nagar (or Patton City) at the site of the battle viz., Khemkaran. This is because
many Patton tanks fielded by the Pakistani forces were either captured or destroyed at the scene.

Geography

Khemkaran is located at 31°10'N 74°40'E. [2]

History

Khem Karan is an old city. Guru Tegh Bahadur (1621—1675) visited it. When the Pakistani army captured Khem
Karan, it damaged the old gurudwara which was rebuilt after the Indian army recaptured the town during the war.

It used to be in Lahore district before partition of India. It became a part of Amritsar district after the partition. Now
it is in Tarn Taran district. The town used to be easily accessible to the city of Kasur only 15 km away, and to
Ferozepur 35 km away, but since Partition, it is a far distance to any major city since Kasur now lies in Pakistan, and
the route to Ferozepur cuts through Pakistan and so is inaccessible to the town's residents. The town's residents must
now travel a long distance to Amritsar or Tarn Taran to procure any major goods, causing great inconvenience.

Khemkaran

365

India-Pakistan war of 1965

The tank battles of 1965 form part of military history as the most intense armored battles between the end of World
War II and the 1991 Gulf War. Close to a thousand tanks, on both sides, took part in the pitched battles and
offensives. At the start of the war, Indian strength was limited to one armored division and one independent
armoured brigade, along with six armoured regiments supporting infantry divisions. Pakistan had two armored
divisions, with the then very modern M-48 Patton tanks. India had an equivalent tank in the Centurion, but their
strength was limited to only four armored regiments.

Patton Nagar

Near the Bhikhiwind village, a strip of land was called Patton Nagar
for a short while in 1965. It was here that more than 60 tanks of the
Pakistani army were displayed at the end of the September
India-Pakistan conflict. The Pakistan Army tanks were captured at the
Battle of Asal Uttar by India's 4 Mountain Division and it became a
memorial to the Pakistani tanks being bogged down in the marshes
during the 1965 War. The tanks were displayed for some time after
which they were shipped to various cantonments and army
establishments in India for display as war trophies.

Destroyed Pakistani tanks arranged at "Patton
Nagar"

97 tanks captured at Assal Uttar

The Indian Army managed to capture 97 Pakistani tanks as a result of
the botched assault by the 1 Armoured Division of the Pakistan Army
at the Battle of Assal Uttar on 10 September 1965. [3] Six Pakistani
Armoured Regiments took part in the battle, namely the 19 Lancers
(Patton), 12 Cavalry (Chaffee), 24 Cavalry (Patton) 4 Cavalry (Patton),
5 Horse (Patton) and 6 Lancers (Patton).

The Indian forces in the field that day consisted of three Armoured

regiments with tanks of varying quality, the Deccan Horse (Shermans),

3 Cavalry (Centurion) and the 8 Cavalry (AMX-13). The battle was so

fierce and intense that at the end of the war, the Pakistani 1st Armored

division had lost about 97 tanks in destroyed/damaged or intact

condition. This included 72 Patton tanks and 25 Chaffees and

Shermans. 32 of the 97 tanks, including 28 Pattons, were in running

condition. The Indian 4th division lost 32 tanks, mostly Sherman tanks, fifteen of which were captured by the

Pakistan Army.

The tanks displayed at Khemkaran

Khemkaran 366

Demographics

As of 2001 India census, Khem Karan had a population of 11,940. Males constitute 55% of the population and
females 45%. Khem Karan has an average literacy rate of 47%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male
literacy is 54%, and female literacy is 39%. In Khem Karan, 15% of the population is under 6 years of age.

Places of interest

A well-known place in this village is the mazaar of pir baba shekh brahm.

References

[1] Stephen Peter Rosen. Societies and Military Power: India and Its Armies. Cornell University Press, p. 246. ISBN 0-8014-3210-3.
[2] "Yahoo maps location of Khemkaran" (http://maps. yahoo. com/#mvt=m&lat=31.15993&lon=74.55798&zoom=13&

ql=khemkaran%2C%20punjab%2C%20india). Yahoo maps. . Retrieved 2009-03-01.
[3] Steve Zaloga, Jim Laurier (1999). The M47 and M48 Patton Tanks (http://books.google.co.in/hooks?id=ZsdjJZWqtg4C). Osprey

Publishing, p. 33. ISBN 1-85532-825-9. . Retrieved 2009-03-12.
[4] "Census of India 2001: Data from the 2001 Census, including cities, villages and towns (Provisional)" (http://web.archive.org/web/

20040616075334/http://www. censusindia.net/results/town. php?stad=A&state5=999). Census Commission of India. Archived from the

original (http://www. censusindia.net/results/town. php?stad=A&state5=999) on 2004-06-16. . Retrieved 2008-11-01.

Lahore Front

The Battle of Lahore (Urdu: ^IDJ ^S j^-DV, Hindi: c#R tft v^\i Ldhaur kT lad.dt) or the Lahore Front were a series
of battles in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965 fought in around Lahore. The battle ended with an Indian tactical
victory. However Indian forces stopped their assault on Lahore once they had reached outskirts of the city having
captured Burki. The rationale for this was that a ceasefire was to be signed soon, and had India captured Lahore it

would likely have been returned in ceasefire negotiations.

Prelude

After losing hope of a plebiscite in Kashmir, the Pakistani Army invaded the Indian part of Kashmir through a covert
operative dubbed Operation Gibraltar. After the Indians spotted the infiltrators, the Indian Army eliminated the
saboteurs and inflicted casualties on Pakistani posts across the Cease Fire Line. Pakistan retaliated by launching
Operation Grand Slam on 17 August 1965 in an effort to relieve infiltrators who had been surrounded after the
failure of Operation Gibraltar on 15 August and to attempt to cut off the Indian supply lines. To relieve forces
almost cut off in their part of Kashmir, India then counterattacked by crossing the international border further south
with the intention of diverting Pakistani units that were participating in Operation Grand Slam. India's goal was to
take distract Pakistani Army's attention and resources away from Operation Grand Slam where unprepared Indian
troops were at severe disadvantage against the Pakistani offensive.

The battle

On the night of 5— 6 September 1965, Indian XI Corps began its operations by advancing towards Lahore along three
axes — Amritsar-Lahore, Khalra-Burki- Lahore and Khem Karan-Kasur roads, overwhelming the small Pakistani
force. Pakistan's 10 and 11 Divisions, which were deployed in the sector, began a series of rather confused
delaying actions, and by the end of the first day the Indian infantry, backed by heavy armoured troops, were within
striking distance of Lahore city. Some advance Indian units managed to capture Ichhogil canal on 6 September but
soon withdrew, since support and reinforcements were not expected to reach any time soon.

Lahore Front 367

T71
Pakistani soon launched a three pronged counterattack to counter Indian assault on 8 September backed by its

newly created 1 and 6 Armoured division to break through the front line formed by Indian 4 Grenadiers, 9 Jammu

ro]

and Kashmir rifles, 1 & 9 Gurkha rifles and Rajput Rifles.

On 8th, Pakistan began counterattack south of Lahore from Kasur
towards Khem Karan, an Indian town 5 km from International Border.
This was followed by another major armoured on 9 ans 10 September

ro]

to recapture lost ground despite heavy toll on Pakistani armour. The
Pakistani counterattack led to the capture of the village Khem
Karan. However a massive Indian counter attack repulsed the
Pakistani forces from this sector of Indian territory. Continued heavy
attrition specially on Pakistani armour however meant Pakistan could

ro]

not continue the counterattack from 10 onwards.

Along the Amritsar-Lahore and Khalra-Burki-Lahore axis in middle

T71
Indian infantry won decisive battle at Burki. Pakistani counterattack

Destroyed or abandoned Pakistani Patton and which startec i on gth Pakistani artillery pounding Indian advance on 8,9

Sherman tanks on display near Khem Karan. , „ , n T ,. . . , , . , , __

and 10 September. Indian units continued their advance, and by 22

About 97 Pakistani tanks were either destroyed or

captured by India during the Battle of Asal September, had reached the Ichhogil canal protecting the city of

Uttar. Lahore. Pakistani counterattacks were effectively tackled at Burki

with little armour support on 10th punishing Pakistani armour.
Indian advance then moved on to capture Dograi, a town in the immediate vicinity of Lahore. After reaching the
outskirts of Lahore Indian Army ensured that Lahore came under constant Indian tank fire to prepare for the main
assault on Lahore city before ceasefire was announced.

In the north India won another decisive battle at Phillora supported by its 1 Armoured Division on 11th destroying

the Pakistani counterattack. Indians continued to advance towards Chawinda in the north from Phillora and

reached Chawinda by 17 September. However, they were halted at Chawinda till ceasefire on 22 September. This

was a result of the exceptional defences backed by artillery were created by Pakistani Brigadier A.A.K. Niazi who

had started preparing the defences soon after fall of Phillora. Indian attack in the north only lost momentum at the

2 n

Battle of Chawinda, after more than 500 km of Pakistani territory had been captured. The Pakistanis being helped

by the fact that the network of canals and streams in the sector made for natural defensive barriers. In addition, the

prepared defence, comprising minefields, dugouts and more elaborate pillboxes, proved problematic for the Indians.

Aftermath

Even after the capture of Dograi on 20—21 September no attempt was made to capture Lahore and the main assault
on Lahore was not launched because a ceasefire was to be signed in the following couple of days and it was known
that the city would have been given back to even if it was captured. By choosing to attack Lahore, the Indians had
managed to relieve pressure from Chumb and Akhnoor in Kashmir, forcing the Pakistan Army to defend further
south.

Former Pakistani president Pervez Musharraf asserted that "Pakistan certainly achieved a tactical victory in the sense
that we conquered more territory, inflicted more casualties, took more prisoners, and almost blew the Indian Air
Force out of the air."

At the end of hostilties on 23 September India retained Between 140 square miles(War Despatches by Lt.
Gen.Harbaksh Singh)and 360 square kilometres(official Indian History of 1965 war) of pakistani territory in the
lahore front including major villages of Bedian,Barki,Padri,Dograi,Bhasin and Ichhogil uttar along the eastern bank
of the Ichhogil canal. Pakistan only gained small tract of land in Khem Karan of 52 square kilometres.

Lahore Front 368

Awards

The Fighting Fifth Battalion of Indian Army which played an important part in capturing Burki was later was
conferred with "Battle Honour of Burki" and "Theatre of Honour, Punjab".

The Pakistani commander, Major Raja Aziz Bhatti, was later awarded the Nishan-e-Haider, the highest military
decoration given by Pakistan for the battle at Burki, posthumously. Each year he is honoured in Pakistan on 6
September, which is also known as Defence Day.

References

[I] Melville de Mellow (28, November 1965). "Battle of Burki was another outstanding infantry operation". Sainik Samachar.
[2] Hagerty, Devin. South Asia in world politics. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2.

[3] William M. Carpenter, David G. Wiencek. Asian security handbook: terrorism and the new security environment. M.E. Sharpe, 2005. ISBN

0-7656-1553-3.
[4] John Keay. India: A History. Grove Press, 2001. ISBN 0-275-97779-X.

[5] "Indo-Pakistan War of 1965" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/war/indo-pak_1965.htm). globalsecurity.org. .
[6] Johri, Sitaram. The Indo-Pak conflict of 1965. Himalaya Publications, 1967. pp. 129—130.
[7] http://sainiksamachar.nic.in/englisharchives/2009/janl5-09/h61.html
[8] Bajwa, Kuldip Singh. The Dynamics of Soldiering. Har-Anand Publication Pvt Ltd,.

[9] Jaques, Tony. Dictionary of Battles and Sieges. Greenwood Publishing Group, 2007. ISBN 0-313-33538-9, 9780313335389.
[10] Pradhan, R. D.. 1965 war, the inside story: Defence Minister Y.B. Chavan's diary of India Pakistani War. ISBN 978-81-269-0762-5.

[II] Rao, K. V. Krishna. Prepare or perish: a study of national security. Lancers Publishers, 1991. ISBN 978-81-7212-001-6.

[12] James Rapson, Edward; Wolseley Haig, Richard Burn, Henry Dodwell, Robert Eric Mortimer Wheeler, Vidya Dhar Mahajan. "Political

Developments Since 1919 (India and Pakistan)". The Cambridge History of India. 6. S. Chand. p. 1013.
[13] Singh, Lt. Gen. Harbaksh (1991). War Despatches. Lancer International, pp. 124. ISBN 81-7062-117-8.
[14] Rakshak, Bharat. "Official History Of 1965 war chapt 11, pg 22" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/History/

1965War/PDF/ 1965Chapterll.pdf). Official History. Times of India. . Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[15] "War memorial inaugurated" (http://www.tribuneindia.eom/2010/20100826/bathinda.htm#2). Tribune News service. 25 August 2010. .

Retrieved? April 2011.
[16] Gupta, Om. Encyclopaedia of India, Pakistan and Bangladesh. Gyan Publishing House, 2006. p. 188. ISBN 81-8205-389-7,

9788182053892.

• Harry Chinchinian, India Pakistan in War and Peace ISBN 0-415-30472-5

Battle of Longewala 369

Battle of Longewala

The Battle of Longewala (Hindi: dl'l^idi ^t ?r^ Longevala kl Lad.ai, Urdu: ^IDJ ^ VI^SD^J) (D4 - 5 December
1971) was one of the first major engagements in the Western Sector during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, fought
between assaulting Pakistani forces and Indian defenders at the Indian border post of Longewala, in the Thar Desert
of the Rajasthan state in India.

The Indian 30th Infantry commanded by Brig E.N. Ramadoss (AVSM,SM, Mentioned-In-Despatches) company
(reinforced) was left with the choices of either attempting to hold out until reinforced, or fleeing on foot from a
mechanised infantry Pakistani force, choosing the former. The company officer commanding ensured that all his
assets were correctly employed, and made the most use of his strong defensive position, and weaknesses created by
errors in enemy tactics. He was also fortunate in that an Indian Air Force forward air controller was able to secure
and direct aircraft in support of the post's defence until reinforcements arrived six hours later.

The Pakistani commanders made several bad decisions, including failure of strategic intelligence to foresee
availability of Indian strike aircraft in the Longewala area, exercising operational mobility with little or no route
reconnaissance, and conducting a tactical frontal assault with no engineer reconnaissance. This led to the Pakistani
brigade group being left extremely vulnerable to air attack, vehicles becoming bogged in ground surface not suitable
for movement of armoured vehicles as they tried to deploy off a single track, these being more susceptible to enemy
fire by using external fuel storage in tactical combat, attempting to execute a night attack over unfamiliar terrain, and
infantry being surprised by obstacles to troop movement causing confusion and stalling the attack during the crucial
hours of darkness when the assaulting infantry still had a measure of concealment from Indian small arms and
infantry support weapons fire.

Background

The main thrust of the Indian Army during the 1971 war was directed towards the eastern theatre, with the western
sector envisaged as a holding operation to prevent the Pakistan Army from achieving any success that would allow
the President of Pakistan, Yahya Khan, any bargaining tool to trade against the captured territories in the east. By the
last week of November 1971, the Indian Army had launched offensive manoeuvres at Atgram against Pakistani
border posts and communications centres along the eastern border. The Mukti Bahini also launched an offensive on
Jessore at this time. It was clear to Islamabad by this time that open conflict was inevitable, and that East Pakistan

was indefensible in the long run. Yahya Khan chose at this point to try to protect Pakistan's integrity and to hold

T31
India by Ayub Khan's strategy — "The defence of East Pakistan lies in the West".

The Western sector

Khan's policy made the assumption that an open conflict with India would not last long due to International pressure,
and that since East Pakistan was undefendable, the war-effort should be concentrated on occupying as large an area
of Indian territory as possible as a bargaining tool at the negotiating table. To this end, Gen Tikka Khan had
proposed an offensive into India, and the PAF's "overriding priority was to give maximum support to this offensive".
The initial plans for the offensive called for at least a temporary cover of air dominance by the PAF under which
Khan's troops could conduct a lightning campaign deep into Western India before digging in and consolidating their
positions. To support Khan's troops, the PAF had launched pre-emptive strikes on the evening of 3 December that
led to the formal commencement of hostilities. In the western theatre, the town of Rahim Yar Khan, close to the
international border, formed a critical communication centre for Khan's forces and, situated on the Sindh - Punjab
railway, remained a vulnerable link on Khan's logistics. The fall of Rahim Yar Khan to Indian forces would cut off
the rail as well as road link between Sindh and Punjab, starving Khan's forces of fuel and ammunitions delivered to
Karachi.

Battle of Longewala 370

Indian battle plans called for a strike across the international border with 12 Indian divisions towards Islamgarh
through Sarkari Tala, subsequently advancing through Baghla to secure Rahim Yar Khan, which would not only
destabilise the Pakistani defences in the Punjab, but also in the Jammu & Kashmir Sector, allowing the planned
Indian offensive in the Shakargarh sector to sweep the Pakistani forces trapped there.

Pakistan, which envisaged the Punjab as an operational centre, had a strong intelligence network in the area and

planned to counter its own comparatively weak strength on the ground with a pre-emptive strike through Kishangarh

Mi
towards the divisional headquarters south of Ramgarh Pakistani intelligence did a very good job infiltrating the

operations area posing as local people and passing on information. However, these sources failed to pass on

information on the Longewala post which, originally a BSF post, was now held by a company of the Punjab

Regiment. Longewala formed a strategic point en route to capturing vast tracts of land and also a pivotal theatre of

war in engaging India on the western front.

Tactical plan

Pakistan's tactical plan was based on the assumption that an attack in the area would help Pakistan's 1st Armoured
Divisions task in the Sri Ganganagar area. Pakistan High command also felt that it was important to protect the
North-South road link which they felt was vulnerable as it was close to the border. A Combined Operations Plan was
decided upon. This involved two Infantry Brigades and two Armoured Regiments. A separate division, the 18
Division, was formed for this purpose. 18 Division Operation Orders required one Infantry Brigade (206) with an
Armoured Regiment (38 Cavalry) to capture and establish a firm base at Longewala, a junction on the Indian road
system and 51st Infantry Brigade and the 22nd Cavalry (Pakistan Army Armoured Corps) to operate beyond
Longewala to capture Jaisalmer.

The Pakistani plan was to reach Longewala, Ramgarh and Jaisalmer". The plan was far-fetched from the start, if only
because it called for a night attack to be conducted over terrain that was not preceded by route or engineer
reconnaissance, and the armoured troops were therefore unaware of the ground surface that could not support rapid
movement towards the objective. As the day unfolded, Longewala would stand out as one of the biggest losses in a
battle for Pakistan despite overwhelming superiority before commencement of the battle, largely due to the vehicles
becoming bogged down in soft sand.

Indian defensive planning

On the Indian side, the Longewala post was held by the A company of the 23rd Battalion, Punjab Regiment, led by
Major K S Chandpuri, the defences occupying a high sand dune which dominated the area that was largely
intractable to vehicles. The post was surrounded by a barbed wire fence of three stands. The rest of the battalion was
located at Sadhewala, 17 km north-east of the Longewala post. Chandpuri commanded an infantry company
reinforced by a section each of MMGs and L16 81mm Mortar, and one Jeep-mounted RCL. His two other recoilless
rifle teams of the anti-tank section were under training at the battalion headquarters. Major Chandpuri also had under
his command a four-man team of the camel Border Security Force division. The Longewala post had no armoured
vehicles, but artillery support was available from a battery of 170 Field Regiment (Veer Rajput) tasked in direct
support to the battalion, and 168 Field Regiment which had been deployed to the area in secrecy just a day earlier.
The direct support battery was attached to the 168 Field Regiment and served as its "Sierra" Battery. Immediately
after PAF strikes on Indian airfields on 3 December, Chandpuri dispatched a 20 man strong patrol under Lieutenant
Dharam Veer to Boundary Pillar (BP) 638, erected right on the international border. This patrol was to play an
important part in detecting the Pakistani forces.

Battle of Longewala 37 1

The battle

During the night of the 4th, Lt. Veer's platoon conducting a patrol detected noises across the border that suggested a

ro]

large number of armoured vehicles approaching. These were soon confirmed by reports - from the Army's Air
Observation Post aircraft flown by Maj. Atma Singh - in the area of a 20 km long armoured column on the track
leading to the post advancing in the general direction of the Longewala post. Directing Lt Veer's patrol to trail the
advancing armoured column, Chandpuri got in touch with the battalion headquarters requesting urgent
reinforcements and armour and artillery support. Battalion HQ gave him the choice of staying put, and containing the
attack as much as possible, or carrying out a tactical retreat of the company to Ramgarh, as reinforcements would not
be available for at least six hours. Considering that Chandpuri's command had no transportation, and was facing a
mobile enemy, he decided to maintain the defensive position of the post where his troops at least had the benefit of
prepared defensive works, rather than conducting a withdrawal at night that was a far more riskier option.

The Pakistani forces begun their attack at 12:30 am. As the offensive approached the lone outpost, Pakistani
artillery opened up across the border with medium artillery guns, killing five of the ten camels from the BSF
detachment. As the column of 65 tanks neared the post, Indian defences, lacking the time to lay a prepared minefield,
laid a hasty anti-tank minefield as the enemy advanced, one infantryman being killed in the process. The Indian

infantry held fire until the leading Pakistani tanks had approached to 15—30 metres before firing their PIATs.

ri2i
They accounted for the first two tanks on the track with their Jeep-mounted 106 mm M40 recoilless rifle, with

one of its crew being killed during the combat. This weapon proved quite effective because it was able to engage the

thinner top armour of the Pakistani tanks from its elevated position, firing at often stationary bogged down vehicles.

In all the post defenders claimed 12 tanks destroyed or damaged. The initial Pakistani attack stalled almost

immediately when the infantry discovered the barbed wire which was unseen in the night, and interpreted it to

signify a minefield. Firing for the Indian RCL crews was made easier by the flames of fires when the spare fuel tanks

on the Pakistani tanks, intended to supplement their internal capacity for the advance to Jaisalmer, exploded, at once

providing ample light for Indians located on higher ground, and creating a dense acrid smoke screen at ground level

for the Pakistani infantry, adding to the confusion. Two hours were lost as Pakistani sappers were brought up, only to

discover there was no minefield. However, at this time Pakistani infantry were required to make another attack, from

a different direction, but in the dawn light. The Pakistani advance then attempted to surround the post two hours later

by vehicles getting off the road, but many vehicles, particularly armoured personnel carriers and tanks, in trying to

soften up the Indian defenders before attacking, became bogged in the soft sand of the area surrounding the post.

Throughout the engagement Major Chandpuri continued to direct the supporting artillery fire.

Although massively outnumbering the Indian defenders, and having surrounded them, the Pakistani troops were
unable to advance over open terrain on a full-moon night, under small arms and mortar fire from the outpost. This
encouraged the Indians not to give up their strong defensive position, frustrating the Pakistani commanders. As dawn
arrived, the Pakistan forces had still not taken the post, and were now having to do so in full daylight.

In the morning the Indian Air Force was finally able to direct some HF-24 Maruts and Hawker Hunter aircraft to
assist the post; they were not outfitted with night vision equipment, and so were delayed from conducting combat

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missions until dawn. With daylight, however, the IAF was able to operate effectively, with the strike aircraft

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being guided to the targets by the airborne Forward Air Controller (FAC) Major Atma Singh in a HAL Krishak.

The Indian aircraft attacked the Pakistani ground troops with the 16 Matra T-10 rockets and 30 mm cannon fire on

each aircraft. Without support from the Pakistan Air Force, which was busy elsewhere, the tanks and other armoured

vehicles were easy targets for the IAF's Hunters. The range of the 12.7 mm anti-aircraft heavy machine guns

mounted on the tanks was limited and therefore ineffective against the Indian jets. Indian air attacks were made

easier by the nature of the barren terrain. Many IAF officers later described the attack as a Turkey Shoot' signifying

the lopsidedness. By noon the next day, the assault ended completely, having cost Pakistan 22 tanks claimed

destroyed by aircraft fire, 12 by ground anti-tank fire, and some captured after being abandoned, with a total of 100

vehicles claimed to have been destroyed or damaged in the desert around the post. The Pakistani attack was first

Battle of Longewala 372

halted, and then Pakistani forces were forced to withdraw when AMX-13 Indian tanks from division's cavalry
regiment, and the 17th Rajputana Rifles launched their counter-offensive to end the six-hour combat; Longewala
had proved to be one of the defining moments in the war.

Aftermath

Notwithstanding the Indian victory, there were intelligence and strategic failures on both sides. India's intelligence
failed to provide warning of such a large armoured force in the western sector. Moreover the defending post was not
heavily armed to neutralise the enemy. Finally, they did not push home the advantage by finishing more tanks when
the IAF had the Pakistan tanks on the run. They did, however destroy or capture some 36 tanks, remaining one of
the largest disproportionate tank casualties for one side in a single battle after World War II.

Invading Pakistan troops meanwhile, had over-estimated the Longewala post's defensive capability due to the
difficulty of approach over sand, conducting the attack at night and in full-moon light, against stiff resistance
encountered there from a well prepared defensive position located on a dominant height. Attacking with virtually no
air cover, they took long to close for an assault on the position, and failed to anticipate availability of Indian close air
support. Given that Pakistan's Sherman tanks and T-59/Type 59 Chinese tanks were slow on the sandy Thar desert,
some military analysts have opined that the attack may have been a poorly planned and executed given the terrain.
Some Pakistan tanks had suffered engine failures due to overheating in trying to extricate themselves, and were
abandoned. The open desert battleground provided little to no cover for the tanks and infantry from air attacks. The
plan to capture Longewala may have been good in conception, but failed due to lack of air cover. As a result, two
tank regiments failed to take Longewala.

For his part, the Indian company commander Major (later Brigadier) Kuldip Singh Chandpuri was decorated with
India's second highest gallantry award, the Maha Vir Chakra. Several other awards were earned by members of the
defending company, and the battalion's commander. On the other hand, the Pakistani divisional commander was
dismissed from service. However, the commander of the Pakistani 51 Brigade who mounted the daring attack and
crossed into Indian territory was later awarded Pakistan's high award of the Sitara-e-Imtiaz.

The British media significantly exploited the defence of Longewala. James Hatter compared the Battle of Longewala
as to Battle of Thermopylae in his article TAKING ON THE ENEMY AT LONGEWALA' describing it as the
deciding moment of the 1971 war. Similarly, Field Marshal R.M. Carver, the British Chief of the Imperial
General Staff, visited Longewala a few weeks after the war to learn the details of the battle from Major
Chandpuri.

Casualties

The battle of Longewala saw heavy Pakistani losses and low Indian losses. Since the Indians were able to use the
defenders advantage, they managed to inflict heavy losses on the Pakistanis. Indian casualties in the battle were 2
soldiers. In addition, one Indian jeep mounted Recoilless rifle was knocked out. Pakistani losses were 200 soldiers
killed. The Pakistanis also suffered the loss of 22 tanks destroyed or abandoned, and lost 100 additional vehicles,
including APC's.

Battle of Longewala in popular culture

The Battle of Longewala was depicted in the 1997 Bollywood Hindi film Border, which was directed by J. P. Dutta
and starred Sunny Deol as the Sikh Major Kuldip Singh Chandpuri, Jackie Shroff as the Wing Commander M.S.
Bawa, Sunil Shetty as the Rajput Border Security Force Captain Bhairon Singh, and the then teen idol Akshaye
Khanna as Lt. Dharam Veer Bhan. The main criticism of the movie was that it showed Indian forces being in a
terrible position before any sort of help came from the Indian Air Force. The movie also exaggerates the casualties of

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Indian soldiers for dramatic purposes. This was not the case in the real incident as Indian forces had defended a

Battle of Longewala 373

position on a height that commanded the area, and were able to defend it effectively due to tactical mistakes made by
the Pakistani commanders. This resulted in only 2 jawan casualties before combat ceased. Indian troops were later

MO]

able to capture damaged or abandoned Pakistani tanks.

Citations and notes

[I] "Pakistan - Yahya Khan and Bangladesh" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r7frd/cstdy: @field(DOCID+pk0032)). Library of
Congress Country Studies. April 1994. . Retrieved 6 April 2009.

[2] Kyle, R.G., Major, Royal Canadian Artillery (14 March 1964). "The India-Pakistan War Of 1971: A Modern War" (http://www.

globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/KRG.htm). . Retrieved 6 April 2009.
[3] Failure in Command: Lessons from Pakistan's Indian Wars, 1947—1999. Faruqui A. Defense Analysis Vol.17, No. 1, 1 April 2001
[4] Thakur Ludra, K. S. (13 January 2001). "An assessment of the battle of Longewala" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2001/20010113/

windows/main4.htm). India: The Tribune, p. 1. . Retrieved 6 April 2009.
[5] Correspondence from Lt. Col. (Retd) H.K. Afridi Defence Journal.Karachi. feb-mar99 (http://www.defencejournal.com/feb-mar99/

letter.htm) URL accessed on 22 September 2006
[6] the company had 84 troops (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001216/windows/main2.htm)
[7] Shorey A. Sainik Samachar. Vol.52, No.4, 16-28 February 2005
[8] p. 177, Nayar
[9] p.239,Rao
[10] p.83, Imprint

[II] p.42, Sharma

[12] there is a suggestion there were two RCL-armed Jeeps at the post

[13] p.100, Nordeen

[14] An IAF pilot's account of the battle (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War/Suresh.html), Suresh

[15] Hattar, James (16 December 2000). "Taking on the enemy at Longewala" (http://www.tribuneindia.com/2000/20001216/windows/

main2.htm). The Tribune. . Retrieved 6 April 2009.

[16] p.17, Alter

[17] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0118751/

[18] p.17-18, Alter

References

• Indivisible Air Power, Strategic Analysis, Institute for Defence Studies and Analyses, 1984, v. 8, 1 185— 1202

• Imprint, Justified Press, 1972, v. 12:7-12 (Oct 1972-Mar 11973)

• Alter, Stephen, Amritsar to Lahore: A Journey Across the India-Pakistan Border, University of Pennsylvania
Press, 2000

• Nordeen, Lon O., Air Warfare in the Missile Age, Smithsonian Institution Press, 1985

• Suresh, Kukke, Wg. Cdr. (Retd), Battle of Longewala: 5 and 6 December 1971, 1971 Iindia Pakistan Ooperations,
http ://w w w . bharat-rakshak. com

• Sharma, Gautam, Valour and Sacrifice: Famous Regiments of the Indian Army, Allied Publishers, 1990

• Nayar, Kuldip, Distant Neighbours: A Tale of the Subcontinent, Vikas Publishing House, 1972

• Rao, K. V. Krishna, Prepare Or Perish: A Study of National Security, Lancers Publishers, 1991

Further reading

• Anil Shorey Pakistan's Failed Gamble: The Battle of Laungewala Manas, 2005, ISBN 81-7049-224-6.

• Brigadier Zafar Alam Khan The Way It Was. He was probably the commanding officer of the 22nd Armoured
Regiment.

• Virendra Verma, Hunting hunters: Battle of Longewala, December 1971: a study in joint army-air operations
(Stories of war in post-independence India), Youth Education Publications, 1992

Battle of Longewala 374

External links

• Battle of Longewal (http://www.freeindia.org/1971war/longewal.html)

• The battle from the Indian Air Force Journal, 1997 (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/1971War/
Longewala.html)

• The Western Theatre in 1971 — A Strategic and Operational Analysis by A.H. Amin (http://orbat.com/site/
history/historical/india/indiawestl971.html) - Orbat

Meghna Heli Bridge

Meghna Heli Bridge, codenamed Operation Cactus-Lilly by India, was a military operation mounted on 9
December 1971 by the Indian Air Force (IAF) to airlift troops of IV Corps of the Indian Army from Brahmanbaria to
Raipura and Narsingdi over the River Meghna during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971, bypassing the strong
Pakistani defenses at Ashuganj and at the destroyed bridge over Meghna.

The Operation

When the war broke out, IV corps went into action in the Agartala sector. At the start of the Dacca Campaign, Dacca
was set as an objective for 77 Corps and IV Corps had been tasked to capture the fortress of Comilla. By 8 December,
troops of the 57 Mountain Division and the IV Corps had already achieved their initial objectives of occupying the
territory leading up to the Meghna. The only way across the river was over the Ashuganj Bridge, which very soon
became a fortress where a Pakistani division had consolidated itself. The strategic importance of breaking down
resistance at Ashuganj soon became apparent to Lt Gen Sagat Singh, leading the IV Corps, who realised that his
troops could, with a push, threaten Dacca. Once a significant force had been built up, there was no recognisable
enemy force between the helidropped force and Dacca. Ashuganj Bridge was the only bridge that spanned the huge
Meghna River which at its narrowest point was more than 4000 yards wide. With his troops at Ashuganj, Singh
however, realised his formation would be joining in the race to Dacca. As would later turn out, II Corps was held at
Kushtia by Pakistani defences and did not make it to Dacca.

However, Aerial photos also showed that the bridge had been destroyed and it would require the Army Engineers to
construct a new bridge over the sprawling Meghna for Indian troops to advance. Anticipating high casualties in the
attempt to take the bridge by force, Singh, along with Maj Gen B F Gonsalves, leading the 57 Mtn Div, made the
decision to airlift the troops.

Brilliant in its conception, the idea was fraught with risks and dangers. The move had to go un-opposed, or at the
worse, face minimal opposition from Pakistani troops north of Raipura. The Indian troops that were helidropped did
not have artillery or armoured support. On the 9th, troops began to be airlifted to Raipura, south of the Ashuganj
Bridge. Once this position was consolidated, the troops were to be airlifted to Narsingdi. From Narsingdi the road to
Dacca would lie bare for IV Corps to take. To provide support for the heliborne troops, PT-76 Tanks were told to
ford the Meghna River.

The Indian Air Force's operation was led by Gp Cpn Chandan Singh and utillised Mi-4 helicopters that had already
been involved in the Sylhet air-lift on the night of 7 December. Through the night of 9 December, the IAF air-lifted
the entire 311 Brigade. The first troops, numbering around six hundred were landed through the night of the 9th,
immediately making contact with Pakistani troops north of Raipura. They however held their positions, with the IAF
flying in reinforcements. Over the next 36 hours, over 110 sorties were flown. The Mi-4, which normally carried 14
troops, carried as many as 23 on board. The troops were initially airlifted to Raipura, south of the Ashuganj Bridge.
At the same time as this operation was on, 73rd Brigade moved across Meghna on boats and riverine crafts.

After consolidating their positions at Raipura, the troops were helilifted to Narsingdi. After securing Narshingdi,
Indian forces captured Daudkandi and Baidder Bazar on 14 and 15 December respectively, both with helicopter

Meghna Heli Bridge 375

assault. From Narshingdi, the metalled road to Dacca lay undefended for IV Corps to take.

Aftermath

The Pakistani Army had left the roads to Dacca undefended moving their defences at the bridge-heads and defensive
strong-points, expecting to hold the Indian Army at these positions long enough till the UN and international
pressure halted the Indian advance. The Meghna Helibridge along with the Tangail Airdrop on 11 December
ensured that these positions were by-passed, capturing the approaches to Dacca. Moreover, the Pakistani garrison at
Ashuganj was effectively put under siege, facing the Indian Army at Brahmanbaria and at Raipura. The Tangail
Airdrop a day later denied the Pakistani 93 Brigade the sanctuary of Dacca. Dacca now could only be defended by
troops within the city.

References

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971

The Indian Army had no standby force ready in 1971 with the specific task of attacking East Pakistan, one of the
many reasons why India did not immediately intervene after Pakistan launched Operation Searchlight in March
1971. Indian Army Eastern Command was tasked with defending the northern and eastern borders and fighting the
insurgencies in Nagaland, Mizoram and Naxalites in West Bengal at that time. Mukti Bahini, aided by the Indian
army through Operation Jackpot, led the struggle against the Pakistan army while the Indian army readied for
intervention. General MAG Osmani, Commander in Chief Bangladesh Forces, had divided Mukti Bahini forces into
11 geographical sectors for command and control purpose. Mukti Bahini forces numbered 30,000 regular soldiers
(including 3 brigades containing 8 intanfry battalions and 3 artillery batteries) and at least 100,000 guerrillas by
December 1971. The Indian Army Eastern Command assembled two existing infantry corps, the IVth and the
XXXIIIrd for operations in Bangladesh, and created a new corps (II) besides reorganized the 101st
Communication Zone as a combat formation. On 21st November, 1971, Indian and Bangladesh forces were put
under a joint command structure, led by Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora, and this force came to be known as Mitro
Bahini. In addition to 29 BSF battalions, Mukti Bahini guerrillas operating near the border or awaiting deployment
in camps inside India were organized into infantry companies and attached to various Indian formations. Mitro
Bahini Order of Battle on December 3, 1971 was:

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971

376

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Indian Army Eastern Command HQ: Fort William, Kolkata

GOC (Indian Army): Lt. General Jagjit Singh Aurora

COS: Maj. Gen. JFR Jacob

Director Military Operations: Major General Inder Gill

Director Operation Jackpot: Lt. Gen. B.N. 'Jimmy'

Sirkar

Bangladesh Forces Liaison: Group Captain A.K.

Khandkar,

HQ: 8, Theater Road, Kolkata

Units attached to Eastern Command but outside
Bangladesh operational area:
From IV corps:

• 2nd Mountain division in North eastern border

• 5th Mountain division in North eastern border

From XXXIII corps:

• 17th Mountain division in Sikkim

• 27th Mountain division in Sikkim

Eastern Command Reserve:

• 6th Mountain division less brigade HQ: Cooch Bihar
CO:Maj.GenP.C. Reddy

• 2 Engineer Regiments and bomb disposal group

Corps: Bengal Area

CO: Maj. Gen. J.P. Chowdhury HQ: Kolkata

• 1/3 Gurkha Battalion

• 1 1 Bihar

• 12 Garh Rifel

• Engineers and bomb disposal units

S U N D A R B AN

Location of Mitro Bahini and Pakistani units on December 1971.
Some unit locations are not shown. Map not to exact scale

Sector: Western Sector

Area of Operation: Khulna, Jessore, Kushtia and Faridpur districts

Corps: II

CO: Lt. Gen T.N. 'Tappy' Raina, HQ: Krishnanagar, West Bengal

• 8th Mountain Artillery Brigade

• 58th, 68th and 263rd Engineering Regiments

9th Infantry Division

CO Maj. Gen. Dalbir Singh

• 32 Infantry Brigade — Brig. M Tewari

• 42 Infantry Brigade — Brig. J. M. Jhoria

• 350 Infantry Brigade — Brig. H. S. Sandhu

• 9th Artillery Brigade

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 197 1 377

• 45th Cavalry Regiment (PT-76s)

• 102nd Engineer Regiment

• Mukti Bahini Sector #9 - Captain Jalil

4th Mountain Division

CO: Maj. Gen. M.S. Barar HQ: Krishnanagar

• 7th Mountain Brigade — Brig. Zail Singh

• 41st Mountain Brigade — Brig. Tony Michigan

• 62nd Mountain Brigade - Brig. Rajinder Nath

• 4th Mountain Artillery Brigade

• Mukti Bahini Sector #8 - Lt. Col. M.A. Manzoor

North Western Sector

Area of Operation: Rajshahi, Bogra, Dinajpur and Rangpur districts

Corps: XXXIII

CO: Lt. Gen. M. L. Thapan HQ: Siliguri, West Bengal

• Corps Artillery Brigade

• 471st Engineering Brigade — Colonel Suri

• 50th Independent Parachute Brigade — Brig M. Thomas

• 235th Army Engineering Regiment

• MF Brigade — Brig. Prem Singh

• Mukti Bahini Sector #7 - Lt. Col. Q.N. Zaman

• 71st Mountain Brigade — Brig. P. N. Kathpalia

• Mukti Bahini Sector #6 — Wing Commander Mohammad K. Bashar

20th Mountain Division

CO: Maj. Gen. Lachman Singh HQ: Balurghat, West Bengal

• 66th Mountain Brigade — Brig. G S. Sharma

• 165th Mountain Brigade — Brig. R. S. Pannu

• 202nd Mountain Brigade — Brig. F. P. Bhatty

• 3rd Armoured Brigade (63rd Cavalry (T-55s) and 69th Armored Regiment (PT-76s) — Brig G Singh Sidhu

• 20th Mountain Artillery Brigade

• 1 3th Engineering Regiment

• 340th Mountain Brigade Group — Brig. Joginder Singh

• 97th Mountain Regiment

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 197 1 378

6th Mountain Division

(Eastern Command HQ Reserve) CO Maj. Gen. P. C. Reddy HQ: Kooch Bihar, West Bengal

• 9th Mountain Brigade — Brig. Tirit Varma

• 99th Mountain Brigade -

• 6th Mountain Artillery Brigade

• 51st Engineer Regiment

North Eastern Sector

Area of Operation: Mymensingh and Tangail districts

101st Communication Zone

CO: Maj. Gen. Gurbax Singh Gil HQ: Guwahati, Assam

• 312 Air Defence Brigade

• 342 Ind. Air Defence Brigade

• 56th Mountain Regiment plus Engineers

• 95th Mountain Brigade — Brig. Hardev Singh Kler

• FJ Sector Brigade — Brig. Sant Singh

• Mukti Bahini Sector #1 1 - Lt. Col. Abu Taher

• 167th Infantry Brigade — Brig. Irani (allotted after December 8, 1971)

• 5th Mountain Brigade (allotted after December 8th, 1971)

Eastern Sector

Area of Operation: Sylhet, Comilla, Noakhali & Chittagong districts

IV Corps

CO Lt. General Sagat Singh HQ: Agartala, Tripura

• Corps Artillery Brigade

• Three Independent Tank Squadrons

• 4th, 62nd, 234th Engineer Regiments and support elements

8th Mountain Division

CO: Maj. Gen. K.V. Krishna Rao

• Echo Force Brigade — Brig. Wadeker

• Mukti Bahini Sector #5 - Major Mir Shawkat Ali

• 59th Mountain Brigade — Brig C. A. Quinn

• 81st Mountain Brigade - Brg. R. C. V. Apte

• 2nd Mountain Artillery Brigade

• Mukti Bahini Sector #4 - Lt. Col. C.R. Dutta

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 197 1 379

57th Mountain Division

CO: Maj. Gen. B.F. Gonsalves

Mukti Bahini S Force Brigade - Lt. Col K.M. Shafiullah

311th Mountain Brigade — Brig. Mishra

73rd Mountain Brigade — Brig. Tuli

61st Mountain Brigade — Brig. Tom Pande

57th Mountain Artillery Brigade

Mukti Bahini Sector #3 - Maj. A. N. Nuruzzaman

Mukti Bahini Sector #2 - Maj. A.T.M Haider

• 15th Engineering Regiment

23rd Mountain Division

CO: Maj. Gen. R.D. Hira

• 301st Mountain Brigade - Brig. H. S. Sodhi

• 181st Mountain Brigade — Brig. Y. C. Bakshi

• 83rd Mountain Brigade — Brig. B. S. Sandhu

• 23rd Mountain Artillery Brigade

• Kilo Force Brigade — Brig. Ananda Swaroop containing:

• Mukti Bahini Sector #1 — Major Rafiqul Islam

• Mukti Bahini K Force Brigade — Major Salek Chowdhury

ro]

• Mizo Range Hills Brigade

Indian Navy Eastern Fleet

CO: Vice Admiral N. Krishnnan HQ: Vishakhapatnam, Andhra Pradesh

Fleet Commander: Rear Admiral S. A. Sharma

A liaison officer from the Navy was posted at Fort William to coordinate matters with the Army Eastern Command.

The fleet was at its peacetime standing when radio intercepts warned of PNS Ghazi entering the Bay of Bengal. INS

Vikrant and part of the fleet was moved to the Andamans as a result.

INS Vikrant — Captain Sawraj Prakash (Majestic class light Aircraft Carrier)

INS Brahmaputra — Captain J.C. Puri (Leopard class frigate)

INS Beas — Captain L. Ram Das (Leopard Class Frigate)

INS Kamrota — Captain A. P. Awati (Petya class frigate)

INS Kavaratti - Captain S. Paul (Petya class frigate)

INS Rajput — Lt. Commander Inder Singh (destroyer)

INS Kalvari — (Submarine)

INS Khandari — Commander R. J. Milan (Submarine)

• INS Panvel - Lt. Com. GR. Naroha (Gunboat)

• INS Pulikat — Lt. Com. S. Krishnnan ( Gunboat)

• INS Panaji - Lt. Com. R. Gupta (Gunboat)

• INS Akshay - Lt. Com. S.D. Moore (Gunboat)

• INS Gharial — Lt. Commander U. Dabir (Landing Ship)

• INS Gildar — Lt. Commander A.K. Sharma (Landing Ship)

• INS Maggar - Lt. Commander AT. N. Singhal (Landing Ship)

Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971

380

Bangladesh Navy

2 gunboats under Indian officers and crewed by Bengali seamen were engaged in Operation Hotpants prior to
December 3, 1971, harassing merchant traffic to East Pakistan and laying mines on the waterways. After December
6th, when the Indian Government recognized Bangladesh as a sovereign nation, the crew wore uniforms of their
respective organizations.
Squadron CO: Commander N.M Samant (On deputation from Indian Navy)

• BNS Palash - Lt. A.K. Mitra (On deputation fom Indian Navy) (Gunboat)

• BNS Padma — Lt. Commander J.K. Rai Chowdhury (Indian Navy) (Gunboat)

Indian Air Force Eastern Command

CO: Air Marshal H. C. Dewan, Temporary
advanced HQ at Fort William
Prior to 1971, Indian Air Force had two
command centers dealing with the East, Eastern
Command (HQ Shillong) responsible for the
North Eastern Border, and the Central (HQ
Allahbad), looking after areas south of the
Ganges river. Air Chief Marshal P.C Lai formed
an advance HQ at Fort William after
consultation with Maj. Gen Jacob to coordinate
operations with the army before the start of the
war.

Western Sector:

• No. 7 Squadron {Battle Axes): Hawker
Hunter F. MK 56 and 2 F. MK 1 - Bagdogra
(WC Ceolho, then WC Suri). The squadron
was moved Chamb after December 12.

• No. 14 Squadron {Bulls): Hawker Hunter F.
MK 56 - Kalaikudda (WC Sundersan) -
Fighter

• No. 16 Squadron {Rattlers): Canberra -
Kalaikudda - (WC Gautum) - Bomber

• No. 22 Squadron {Swifts): Folland Gnat MK
1 Dum Dum, then Kalaikudda, then Calcutta
(WC Sikand)

• No. 30 Squadron {Charging Rhinos): Mig 21 FL - Kalaikudda (WC Chudda) - Interceptor

• No. 221 Squadron {Valiants): Su-7 BMK - Panagarh (WC Sridharan) - Fighter/Bomber

• No. 104 (Alluitte 3) and No. 104 (Mi-4) Heli units

North East and North Western Sector: CO: Air Vice Marshal Devasher HQ: Shillong

• No. 4 Squadron {Oorials): Mig 21 FL - Gauhati (Wing Commander JV Gole)

• No. 15 Squadron {Flying Lancers): Folland Gnat - Gauhati then Agortala (WC Singh)

• No. 17 Squadron {Golden Arrows): Hawker Hunter F MK 56 - Hashimara (WC Chatrath)

• No 37 Squadron {Black Panthers): Hawker Hunter F MK 10 - Hashimara (WC Kaul)

• No. 24 Squadron {Hunting Hawks): Folland Gnat Gauhati (WC Bhadwar)

• No. 28 Squadron {First Supersonics): Mig 21FL Gauhati (WC Bishnu)

Location of Mitro Bahini and Pakistani units on December 1971. Some unit
locations are not shown. Map not to exact scale

Mitro B ahini Order of B attle December 1 97 1 381

• No. 105 (Mi-4) and 121 (Alouette III) Helicopter Squadrons - Agartola

Bangladesh Air Force: Kilo Flight CO: Flight Lt. Sultan Mahmud HQ: Dimapur Nagaland, then Agartala
This unit was formed by Bengali pilots and technicians defecting from the Pakistan Air Force. Flying light aircraft
donated by India, they launched attacks on depots and communication lines on December 2, 1971, before the start of
the war. The unit relocated to Agartala and then Shamshernagar after December 3, 1971.

References

[1] Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation, p60

[2] Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, "Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation", p75

[3] Islam, Maj. Rafiqil, "A Tale of Millions", p314

[4] Salik, Siddiq, Witness to Surrender, pl23

[5] Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation, pl91-p200

[6] Islam, Maj. Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions, p313

[7] Islam, Maj. Rafiqul, A Tale of Millions, p318

[8] Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR, Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation, pi 96

Source of Information

• Salik, Siddiq (1997). Witness to Surrender. ISBN 984-05-1374-5.

• Jacob, Lt. Gen. JFR (2004). Surrender at Dacca: Birth of A Nation. The University Press Limited.
ISBN 984-05-1532-2.

• Qureshi, Maj. Gen. Hakeem Arshad (2003). The Indo Pak War of 1971: A Soldiers Narrative. Oxford University
Press. ISBN 0-19-579778-7.

• Islam, Major Rafiqul (2006). A Tale of Millions. Ananna. ISBN 984-412-033-0.

Operation Chengiz Khan

Operation Chengiz Khan was the code name assigned to the pre-emptive strikes carried out by the Pakistani Air
Force (PAF) on the forward airbases and radar installations of the Indian Air Force (IAF) on the evening of 3
December 1971, and marked the formal initiation of hostilities of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. Mounted in three
waves between 17:39 and 23:00 hrs, the strikes were targeted against the Indian airbases of Amritsar, Ambala, Agra,
Awantipur, Bikaner, Halwara, Jodhpur, Jaisalmer, Pathankot, Bhuj, Srinagar and Uttarlai as well as against air
defence radars at Amritsar and Faridkot.

In an address to the nation on radio that same evening, the then Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi held the air
strikes to be a declaration of war against India, and the Indian Air Force responded with initial air strikes the

same night, which were expanded to massive retaliatory air strikes the next morning, as anticipated by the

Pakistan Air Force. Statements released by both nations the next day confirmed the "existence of a state of war

T31
between the two countries", although neither government had formally issued a declaration of war.

Operation Chengiz Khan 382

Background

In March 1971, East Pakistan (now Bangladesh) declared independence from Pakistan, starting the Bangladesh
Liberation War following rising political discontent and cultural nationalism in East Pakistan and the brutal
suppressive force from West Pakistan in response (see Operation Searchlight and 1971 Bangladesh atrocities).

Pakistan came under increasing criticism from India, the Soviet Union, Japan, and Europe as the plight of the
refugees and their impact on the Indian economy were highlighted by Indira Gandhi in the UN and on a number of
global tours. However, the United States and China showed little interest in the situation and actively opposed aid,
intervention or support to the Mukti Bahini (possibly fearing advancement of Soviet influence deep into South

Asia ). India's aid to the Mukti Bahini continued unabated, and fighting between the Mukti Bahini and the Pakistani
forces grew increasingly vicious. On 9 August 1971, India signed a twenty-year co-operation treaty with the Soviet

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Union which promised military support to either nation should she be attacked. This provided India cover against
any possible Chinese or American intervention in aid of Pakistan if it went to war with India. To the Pakistani
leadership, it became clear that armed Indian intervention and secession of East Pakistan was becoming
inevitable.

The strategy of pre-emption

By October 1971, the Mukti Bahini had started launching massive raids deep into East Pakistan with active support

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of the Indian Army troops. The situation had detoriorated to a state of active undeclared war in the East by the
end of November, when Indian and Mukti Bahini forces launched offensives on both the eastern and western borders
of East Pakistan. Regular Indian army troops engaged and mauled Pakistani armour at Garibpur while offensive
manouvres were launched in Atgram against Pakistani border posts and communications centres along the eastern
border. The Mukti Bahini also launched an offensive on Jessore at this time. It was clear to Islamabad by this

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time that open conflict was inevitable, and that East Pakistan was indefensible in the long run. Yahya Khan chose

at this point to try to protect Pakistan's integrity and to hold India by Ayub Khan's strategy — "The defence of East

n si
Pakistan lies in the West".

This policy made the assumptions that an open conflict with India would not last long due to international pressure,
and since East Pakistan was undefendable, the war-effort should be concentrated on occupying as large an area of
Indian territory as possible as a bargaining tool at the negotiating table. To this end, Gen. Tikka Khan had proposed
an offensive into India, and the PAF's overriding priority was to give maximum support to this offensive. The initial
plans for the offensive called for at least a temporary cover of air dominance by the PAF under which Khan's troops
could conduct a lightning campaign deep into Western India before digging in and consolidating their positions. In
order to achieve air dominance, Pakistan decided to launch an offensive counter air strike codenamed Operation
Chengiz Khan on Indian airbases.

A second objective for the PAF was to conduct air interdiction against the supply routes for the Indian troops
opposing Khan's proposed offensive, but these were accorded as secondary targets to be engaged after the operation
started.

Operation Chengiz Khan

The PAF's strikes were based on the same strategy of pre-emptive neutralization of enemy air capability used by the
Israeli Air Force against Egyptian and Arab air forces in Operation Focus during the Six-Day War of 1967.

The decision to hit India with a pre-emptive air strike was taken on 30 November 1971 during a meeting among the
Pakistani President, Gen. Yahya Khan, Chief of Staff Gen. Abdul Hamid Khan, and the Chief of General Staff, Lt.
Gen. Gul Hassan Khan.

The objectives of the strike were:

• To surprise the IAF by attacking its forward airfields when it was least expected.

Operation Chengiz Khan 383

• To neutralize these in order to obtain at least temporary battlefield air superiority in the West.

• To counter-balance the Indian numerical advantage by hitting the forward operating bases of the Indian Air Force
as a measure reducing the weight of expected counterattacks on PAF's own bases.

To achieve surprise, the decision was made to strike on a Friday, the day of the jumu'ah (Muslim Sabbath), at 17:45
hrs when shifts in IAF control centers were changing. Emulating its operations' experience in battle against the
Indian Air Force during the Indo-Pakistani Conflict of 1965, the decision was made to hit the Indian bases in a
two-wave dusk strike followed by a number of night-interdiction missions through the night. The plans for the
strike also anticipated the Indians securing their aircraft in blast pens. Also, anticipating difficulty in target
acquisition for camouflaged targets such as fuel tanks, ammunition dumps and command centers, the primary
objectives set for the operation were the runways and air defense radars.

The first strikes

The final orders for the strike were issued at 17:30 hrs. The first formations were in air and heading for their targets
by 17:40 hrs. Officially, it was announced via government channels that the airstrikes were launched in response to
attacks along the western border on Pakistan Rangers' outposts by regular troops of the Indian army, which the
Indian Air Force was providing support to. The Indians would later deny any engagement on the Western Front.
However, the Indian air defence radars failed to detect the approaching formations. The first indications for the
Indians of the impending assault was the roar of the strike aircraft over their airfields, while in Delhi, the air-raid
sirens were the first indications for newsmen, gathered for the daily brief of the East-Pakistan situation, that
something was going on.

The first two waves deployed 32 aircraft. Of these, 24 were F-86F Sabres equipped with bombs, 8 Mirage Ills armed
with bombs, and 4 F-104s armed with cannons. The raids were limited to one pass at a relatively high level with the
pilots ordered not to operate below 300m AGL as defence against ground fire.

• Pathankot — The first of the strikes were mounted against Pathankot AB. Led by a flight of two Mirage Ills (a
reconnaissance craft and a strike escort) a six ship mission of F-86Fs flying from Murid and led by Wing
Commander S N Jilani hit Pathankot with unguided rockets and dropped several 125 kg bombs. The main target
of this strike was the runway, which was damaged and took the Indian ground crew several hours to repair. These
missions went unopposed since the IAF had not scrambled any interception, and faced only AA. Pathankot was
covered by interceptors from Adampur following this first strike during the time it took the ground crew to repair

[20]

its runway.

• Amritsar — At 17:45 hrs, four Mirages flying from Sargodha and led by Wing Commander Hakimullah attacked

Amritsar AB. Hakimullah's flight was armed with two 500 kg bombs each, which the strike used efficiently

hitting the first 300m of the runway and cratering it enough to leave it nonoperational for several hours.

However, the Amritsar runway was repaired within the same night to receive detachments of Mig 21s and Su-7

that flew against Rafiqui AB the next morning. A second strike of two F-104 Starfighters, led by Wing

Commander Amjad H Khan hit the P-35 radar station at Amritsar, rendering it inoperational for nearly an hour.

On one remaining serviceable lane of runway, two sukhois took off moments before it got bombed by a passing
B _ 57 [20]

• Srinagar — Srinagar was hit at 17:50 hrs by a flight of six F-86Fs led by Wing Commander Changezi. Flying
from Peshawar, the strike hit a fully lit up Srinagar airport with 250 kg bombs. However, this strike failed to
cause any significant damage. Srinagar was to be attacked a second time, during the followup strikes later in the
evening, by a C-130 commanded by Group Captain Qayyum. However Srinagar largely escaped unscathed.

• Awantipur — Awantipur was hit at the same time as Srinagar, at approximately 17:50 hrs by a flight of F-86
Sabres led by Wing Commander Abdul Aziz. Awantipur, at this time did not have any IAF aircraft based there.
The strike therefore did not achieve any significant results.

Operation Chengiz Khan 384

• Faridkot — At 17:53 hrs, a two ship mission of F-104As flying from Masroor and led by Wing Commander Arif
Iqbal hit the Faridkot radar station with cannon fire. This strike damaged the P-35 radar significantly. One of the
pilots found it hard to resist the sight of a light aircraft parked near the runway and made an extra attack to destroy
it.

All the Pakistani aircraft deployed in this first wave were recovered safely. However, the orders to make relatively
high level passes also compromised the effectiveness of these strikes, with the result that IAF ground personnel were
able to complete the repair to whatever damage was caused within the same night, hindered only by the follow-up
waves.

Within forty-five minutes of these strikes, Pakistani troops had shelled India's western frontier and were reported to
have crossed the border at Punch in the state of Jammu.

Followup counter-air strikes

The third wave of the PAF counter air strikes were directed to strike Ambala, Agra and Halwara around 18:00 hrs
and continued in single or two ship formations through the evening until at least 22:30 hrs. These strikes involved
fifteen B-57 Canberras, four T-33s, and one C-130. The B-57s flew seven single ship sorties. These caused
significant damage, especially in in Uttarlai and Halwara and impeded IAF's preparation for retaliation.

• Ambala — Ambala was a hit by a two ship B-57 formation led by Wg. Cdr. Rais Rafi. The flight hit the runway
with eight bombs, causing minor damage.

• Agra — Like Ambala, Agra, which lay deepest among the PAF's targets that evening, was struck by a two ship
mission of B-57 led by Wg. Cdr. Yunus and suffered minor damage. Ironically, the first Indian Counter strikes
launched that very night included the Canberras of No. 5 Sqn were based at Agra.

• Halwara — Halwara was struck twice on the night of the 3rd. The first of these was by a two ship flight of B-57s
led by Sqn. Ldr. Abdul Basit. This flight struck the runway with eight bombs, three of which landed on target and
significantly damaged it. Halwara was attacked a second time by a single B-57 bomber just before midnight. The
arrival of the aircraft was detected by radar and the anti aircraft defences were ready. The aircraft dropped some
bombs on the runway and airfield. One of the bombs dropped by the aircraft was equipped with a delayed fuse. It
exploded while being examined and killed a navigator from the missile squadron. Halwara was not repaired
before early the next morning.

• Amritsar and Bikaner — Amritsar was attacked a second time at around 22: 10 hrs by the flight of Fit. Bikaner
was attacked by Sqn. Ldr. Haq while Pathankot was struck by Fit. Lt. Sultan Arshad. Neither of these caused any
significant damage.

• Sirsa — Sirsa was hit by Sqn. Ldr. Alvi with bombs equipped with time-delayed fuses, damaging the runway
heavily and forcing the runway to be closed for the rest of the night.

• Bhuj — Was accurately bombed and IAF commanding officer found it difficult to get enough labour to repair it.

• Uttarlai — Four T-33s from A-Flight No. 2 Squadron, led by Sqn. Ldr. Qureshi, hit Uttarlai, causing damage to
the runway. These were launched at the same time as the second strike over Srinagar. Uttarlai was attacked a
second time later that night by Wg. Cdr. Akhtar. The net damage to the runway was significant enough to keep
the runway closed for six days and for the taxiway to be used instead.

• Jaisalmer, Jodhpur and Jamnagar — In the south, Sqn. Ldr. Ishtak Qureshi's bombs hit the underground power
cable at Jaisalmer, cutting off the power supply and telephone connection for six hours. At the same time, Jodhpur
was hit by two B-57s led by Sqn. Ldr. Sohail Mansur while Jamnagar was hit by Fit. Lt. Ejaz Azam.

The later flights were not expected to achieve any significant objectives which they miraculously did, and also aided
to hamper any counter-air strike by the IAF. The pilots were all qualified for night flying and were to continue
flying such raids for the rest of the war, gaining the nickname "Uttarlai Night Mail".

Operation Chengiz Khan 385

The Indian retaliation

T21
As Indian Prime Minister Indira Gandhi addressed the nation on radio shortly after midnight informing about the

Pakistani attack, the Indian Air Force struck back. By 21:00hrs, the Canberras of the No. 35 Squadron and No. 106

Squadron, as well as No. 5 and No. 16 squadron were armed and ready for their foray deep into Pakistan. These flew

against eight Western Pakistani airfields of Murid, Mianwali, Sargodha, Chander, Risalewala, Rafiqui, and Masroor.

In total, 23 combat sorties were launched that night, inflicting heavy damage to Sargodha and Masroor. The PAF

units stationed on these airfields had to operate from taxiways for the following two days.

Through the night the IAF also struck the main East Pakistani airfields of Tejgaon, and later Kurmitolla. At the same
time, the IAF was deploying additional aircraft to its forward airfields for the strikes that were to follow the next

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morning. Within two days, the Indian Air Force was to achieve complete air supremacy in the East Pakistan.

Analysis

In total, the Pakistani Air Force dropped 183 bombs over 12 target runways and 120 hits were reported by the
pilots. However, of its stated objectives, the PAF was unable to neutralize the Indian Air Force in the west
although it certainly achieved surprise. The Indian Air Force was unable to offer any resistance to the first waves
other than ground fire. The damage to the facilities, albeit limited, also meant that the third wave went unchallenged
in the air.

Just as importantly, only a limited section of the PAF's strike capability was employed during Operation Chengiz
Khan. Also, compared to the Israeli Air Force's preparation for airstrikes against Egyptians (the Israeli pilots had
flown against replicas of the most important Arab airfields) and the use of specific armaments, the PAF had been
limited by servicability before the USA supplied spare parts in March of the year and training was limited if any.
Constraints of the fledgling Pakistani economy also meant the development of its military could not be supported.
The Pakistani Air Force thus lacked ammunition for effective runway denial. East Pakistani personnel of the PAF
who defected may have revealed some of the plans, and it appears that IAF was expecting a pre-emptive strike

against its forward airfields. A large-scale offensive was therefore doomed to fail, likely to cause heavy losses and

T31
bring the PAF in a position where it could never seriously challenge IAF operations.

Yet to prove the positive results of PAF's attack, the following narration comes from an Indian Mig-21 pilot taken
prisoner after being shot down over Pakistan. Flight Lieutenant Harish Sinhji, who belonged to a Sirsa-based
squadron, stated:

"After one of PAF's night bombing strikes on our airfield, we were all grounded for six hours. The runway had been
cratered in many places. The following morning our CO, Wing Commander V B Sawardekar, took us all to the
runway to show us the Pakistani pilot's bombing accuracy. Pointing to the craters on our runway he said 'this is the

M [23] [24] [251

kind of bombing accuracy the IAF pilots should achieve against Pakistani targets.

References and notes

[1] Tom Cooper, with Syed Shaiz Ali. "India — Pakistan War, 1971; Western Front, part I" (http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_330.

shtml). Air Combat Information Group. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[2] "Pakistan intensifies airraids on India" (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/december/3/newsid_2519000/2519133.stm).

BBC. 1971-12-03. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[3] "India and Pakistan: Over the Edge" (http://www. time. com/time/magazine/article/0,9171, 910155-2, 00. html). TIMES magazine.

1971-12-13. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[4] "Indian Air Force. Squadron 5, Tuskers" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/india/sqn-5.htm). Global Security. . Retrieved

2008-07-04.
[5] "Air Force gears up to retaliate" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/1971/Dec03/Art03.htm). Bharat-rakshak. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[6] "Genocide in Bangladesh, 1971." (http://www.gendercide.org/case_bangladesh.html). Gendercide watch. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[7] "Emerging Discontent, 1966—70." (http://countrystudies.us/bangladesh/21.htm). Country Studies Bangladesh. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[8] Bose2005
[9] Donaldson 1972

Operation Chengiz Khan 386

[10] "The War of liberation." (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/W_0020.htm). Banglapaedia. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[11] Remarks of President Richard M Nixon on April 10, 1971 at State Department signing of Biological Weapons Convention.

Every Great Power must follow the principle that it should not directly or indirectly allow any other
nation to use force or armed aggression against one of its neighbors.

. USIS Text, pp 1-2.
[12] Kapur 1972
[13] "Bangladesh: Out of War, a Nation Is Born. TIME. Dec 20, 1971 Vol. 98 No. 25" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/

0,9171, 878969,00.html). TIMES magazine. 1971-12-20. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[14] "Mukti Bahini." (http://banglapedia.search.com.bd/HT/M_0380.htm). Banglapaedia. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[15] Col. Anil Shorey. "The Unique Battle of Garibpur. Sainik Samachar Vol.49, No.8, 16—30 April 2002" (http://mod.nic.in/samachar/

aprill5-02/html/ch3.htm). Sainik Samachar, Indian Ministry of Defence. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[16] "Pakistan: Yahya Khan and Bangladesh" (http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r7frd/cstdy: @field(DOCID+pk0032)). Library of

Congress Country Studies.. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[17] Kyly R G. "The India-Pakistan War Of 1971: A Modern War" (http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/report/1984/KRG.htm).

Global security.. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[18] Faruqui2001

[19] "The War of December 1971" (http://indianairforce.nic. in/show_page.php?pg_id=71). Indian Air Force. . Retrieved 2008-07-04.
[20] "My Days with the IAF" by Air Chief Marshal P C Lai
[21] Lai 1986

[22] Story of Pakistan Air Force — A Saga of Courage and Honour, page 451.
[23] Story of Pakistan Air Force — A Saga of Courage and Honour, page 451.
[24] Air Cdre M KAISER TUFAIL (Retd). "PAF on the Offensive - 1971 War" (http://www.defencejournal.com/201 1-9/lte.asp).

defencejournal.com (defencejournal.com). .
[25] [ lAir cdr Kaiser Tufail (http://www.defencejournal.com/201 1-9/lte.asp)] (August 5, 2011). "PAF on the Offensive - 1971 War" (http://

kaiser-aeronaut.blogspot.com/2011/08/paf-on-offensive-1971-war.html). Air cdr Kaiser Tufail. .

Further reading

• Blechman, B.M.; Kaplan, S.S. (1978), Force Without War: U.S. Armed Forces as a Political Instrument,
Brookings Institution Press, ISBN 0815709854.

• Bose, Sarmila (2005), Anatomy of Violence: Analysis of Civil War in East Pakistan in 1971. Economic & Political
Weekly. Vol 40;(41);pp 4463^4472, Economic & Political Weekly, ISSN 0012-9976.

• Donaldson, R.H (1972), India: The Soviet Stake in Stability. Asian Survey Vol. 12, No. 6. (Jun., 1972), pp.
475^492, University of California press, ISSN 0004-4687.

• Kapur, Ashok (1972), Indo-Soviet Treaty and the Emerging Asian Balance. Asian Survey, Vol. 12, No. 6 (Jun.,
1972), pp. 463^474, University of California press, ISSN 0004-4687.

• Lai, Pratap Chandra (1986), My Years with the IAF, Casemate Pub & Book Dist Lie, ISBN 8 170620082.

• Faruqui, A (2001), Failure in Command: Lessons from Pakistan's Indian Wars, 1947—1999. Defense and Security
Analysis, Volume 17, Number 1, 1 April 2001 , pp. 31^40(10), Routledge, part of the Taylor & Francis Group,
ISSN 1475-1798.

• India Today (2007, vol 32, issue 26—34), RAW TRUTHS A startling glimpse into Working of India's External
Intelligence Agency, India Today group.

Operation Gibraltar 387

Operation Gibraltar

Operation Gibraltar was the codename given to the strategy of Pakistan to infiltrate Jammu and Kashmir, the
northernmost state of India, and start a rebellion against Indian rule. Launched in August 1965, Pakistan Army's 50th
Airborne paratroopers and Pakistan Army's guerrillas, disguised as locals, entered Jammu and Kashmir from
Pakistan with the intention of fomenting an insurgency among Kashmiri Muslims. However, the strategy went awry
from the outset as it was not well-coordinated and the infiltrators were soon found. The debacle was followed by an
Indian counterattack that resulted in the 1965 Indo-Pakistani War.

The operation was a significant one as it sparked a large scale military engagement between the two neighbours, the
first since the Indo-Pakistani War of 1947. Its success, as envisaged by its Pakistani planners, could have given
Pakistan control over a unified Kashmir; something that Pakistan desired to achieve at the earliest opportunity.
However, the plan misfired and triggered a war (the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965) where Pakistan was put on the
defensive and forced by the Indian army to retreat back to normal borders.

Background

Following the First Kashmir War which saw India gaining the majority of the disputed area of Kashmir, Pakistan
sought an opportunity to win remaining Kashmir areas. The opening came after the Sino-Indian War in 1962 after
India's war with the China and as a result the Indian Military was undergoing massive changes both in personnel and
equipment. During this period, despite being numerically smaller than the Indian Military, Pakistan's armed forces
had a qualitative edge in air power and armour over India, which Pakistan sought to utilise before India completed
its defence build-up. The Rann of Kutch episode in the summer of 1965, where Indian and Pakistani forces clashed,
resulted in some positives for Pakistan. Moreover, in December 1963, the disappearance of a holy relic from the
Hazratbal shrine in Srinagar, created turmoil and intense Islamic feeling among Muslims in the valley, which was
viewed by Pakistan as ideal for revolt. These factors bolstered the Pakistani command's thinking: that the use of
covert methods followed by the threat of an all out war would force a resolution in Kashmir. Assuming that a

weakened Indian Military would not respond, Pakistan chose to send in "mujahideens" and Pakistan Army regulars
into Jammu and Kashmir.

The original plan for the Operation, codenamed Gibraltar, was prepared as early as the 1950s; however it seemed
appropriate to push this plan forward given the scenario. Backed by then foreign minister Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and
others, the aim was an "attack by infiltration" by a specially trained irregular force of some 40,000 men, highly
motivated and well armed. It was reasoned that the conflict could be confined only to Kashmir. In the words of
retired Pakistani General Akhtar Hussain Malik, the aims were "to defreeze the Kashmir problem, weaken Indian
resolve, and bring India to the conference table without provoking general war." As a result, groundwork and
intelligence gathering for execution of the plan was laid by launching "Operation Nusrat", the purpose of which was
to locate gaps in the Cease Fire Line (CFL) that were to serve as entry points for the mujahideen, and to gauge the

ro]

response of the Indian army and the local population.

Execution of plan

Operation Gibraltar

388

Name of Force

Area of operation

Salahudin

Srinagar Valley

Ghaznavi

Mendhar-Rajauri

Tariq

Kargil — Drass

Babur

Nowshera-Sundarbani

Qasim

Bandipura-Sonarwain

Khalid

Qazinag-Naugam

Tithwal-Tangdhar

Sikandar

Gurais

Khilji

Kel-Minimarg

Despite initial reservations by the President of Pakistan Ayub Khan, the operation was set in motion. In the first

191
week of August 1965, (some sources put it at 24 July) Pakistani troops, members of the SSG commandos and

irregulars began to cross the Cease Fire Line dividing Indian- and Pakistani-held Kashmir. Several columns were to

occupy key heights around the Kashmir valley and encourage a general revolt, which would be followed by direct

combat by Pakistani troops. According to Indian sources as many as 30,000 — 40,000 men had crossed the

line, while Pakistani sources put it at 5,000 -7,000 only. These troops known as the "Gibraltar Force" were

organized and commanded by Major General Akhtar Hussain Malik, GoC 12 Division The troops were

divided into 10 forces (each of 6 units of 5 companies each) . The 10 forces were given different code names,

mostly after historically significant Muslim rulers. The operation's name, Gibraltar, itself was chosen for the

Islamic connotations. The 8th century Umayyad conquest of Hispania was launched from Gibraltar, a situation

not unlike that Pakistan envisaged for Indian Kashmir, i.e. conquest of Kashmir from Operation Gibraltar. The areas

chosen were mainly on the de facto Cease Fire line as well as in the populous Kashmir Valley.

The plan was multi-pronged. Infiltrators would mingle with the local populace and incite them to rebellion.
Meanwhile guerrilla warfare would commence, destroying bridges, tunnels and highways, harassing enemy
communications, logistic installations and headquarters as well as attacking airfields, with a view to create the

conditions of an "armed insurrection" in Kashmir — leading to a national uprising against Indian rule. It was

1171
assumed that India would neither counter-attack, nor involve itself in another full-scale war, and the liberation of

Kashmir would rapidly follow.

Indian retaliation

Despite the operational planning, the intruders were detected by Indian forces in Kashmir. With the exception of four
districts which did revolt, the local Kashmiris did not cooperate as expected. Instead, they conveyed news of the
planned insurgency to the local authorities and turned the infiltrators in. Gibraltar Force was soon facing attacks
from the Indian Army who moved in immediately to secure the border. The majority of the infiltrators were captured
by the Indian troops, although some managed to escape. India accused the Pakistani government of sending and
aiding the seditionists, and although Pakistan denied any complicity, it was soon proved that the foreigners

were all of Pakistani origin. In fact several of them were found to be officers in the Pakistan Army, with the

11 Rl

UNMOGIP Chief, General Nimmo also confirming Pakistan's involvement.

India swiftly launched counter attacks across the cease fire line, attacking the Pakistan divisions in POK that had
provided cover for the infiltrators. As a result, many of these posts fell to Indian attacks resulting in territorial gains
for India. On August 15, India scored a major victory after a prolonged artillery barrage. Their success in countering
Pakistani plans proved to be a morale booster for Indian troops, coming exactly on India's independence day.
Fighting continued until the end of the month, as vital pockets like Haji Pir pass — which was the logistical supply

Operation Gibraltar 389

route of the infiltrators — and other nearby areas were also brought under Indian control.

The Indian offensive resulted in defeat of Pakistani troops in the covert guerilla operation. Frustrated with the failure

ri4i

of Operation Gibraltar Gen. Ayub Khan urgently launched Operation Grand Slam to contain the situation since
there was no contingency planned in case of Gibraltar's failure. This however resulted in more problems for Pakistan,
as India countered by crossing the international border further south in Punjab, starting the war of 1965.

Reasons for failure

While the covert infiltration was a complete failure that ultimately led . }6 , m S7 , M//l - mK

to the Second Kashmir War, military analysts have differed on whether , Mm ™»r „,„.,. '„ '

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the plan itself was flawed. Some have held that the plan was
well-conceived but was let down by poor execution, but almost all

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Pakistani and neutral analysts have maintained that the entire operation f . ' „..„,_ ' 2 ' s s '|i

was "a clumsy attempt' and doomed to collapse. According to then * c^sfTdent sal *

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Chief of the Pakistan Air Force, Air Marshal Nur Khan, there was little 5 B$tt£3&JngR&^3n "
coordination amongst the military services on the impending SKUA'S"™ i™iSK s ,™m1S- 5 ffS r ^s?g^^s™" «•»» •»« '

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operation. Pakistani author Pervaiz Iqbal Cheema notes that

A declassified US State Department telegram that

Muhammad Musa, Pakistan's Chief of the Army Staff, was reportedly confirms the existence of hundreds of infiltrators

SO confident that the plan would succeed and conflict would be in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir.

localized to Kashmir that he did not inform the Air Force, as he

191
believed the operation would not require any major air action. Many senior Pakistani military officers and political

leaders were unaware of the impending crisis, thus surprising not only India, but also Pakistan itself. Furthermore,

T221
few people in Kashmir were really interested in revolting against India, a fact largely ignored while planning.

Colonel SG Mehdi, the SSG commander, cited the above reasons as well as a few others (such as logistical problems

and a confusion of classic guerrilla operations with commando raids) as to why the operation would fail even before

T231
its launch. He also added that many SSG officers were unsure of the means and uncertain of the end. Initially,

Pakistan's Chief of Army Staff General Muhammad Musa opposed Gibraltar on the grounds that if the operation

was a non-starter, then Pakistan would not be able to defeat India in the ensuing war. Many senior officials also were

against the plan, as a failure could lead to an all-out war with India, which many wanted to avoid. The resulting war

of 1965 had a greater negative impact on Pakistan than on India.

Notes

[1] "India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941-1991, ISBN 1-4289-8189-6, DIANE Publishing, pp 235, 238

[2] It is believed to be the hair of Islamic prophet Muhammad, the founder of Islam

[3] Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War By Victoria Schofield Published by I.B.Tauris, pp 108, ISBN 1-86064-898-3,

2003
[4] The Jammu and Kashmir conflict Overview (http://www.yale.edu/macmillan/globalization/kashmir.pdf) by Meredith Weiss 25 June

2002 — Hosted on Yale University
[5] The Fate of Kashmir International Law or Lawlessness? By Vikas Kapur and Vipin Narang (http://www.stanford.edU/group/sjir/3.l.

06_kapur-narang.html) Stanford Journal of International Relations, Stanford University
[6] Pak Radio's claim of India starting 1965 war falls flat (http://story.malaysiasun.eom/index.php/ct/9/cid/303bl9022816233b/id/284377/

cs/1/) Malaysia Sun 21 September 2007
[7] Hassan Abbas (2004). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, the Army, and America's War on Terror. M.E. Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1497-9.,

pp49
[8] Matinuddin, Kamal. "Operation Gibraltar revisited" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20070930015348/http://www.thenews.com.pk/

editorial_detail.asp?id=22817). Opinion archive. The News International Pakistan. Archived from the original (http://www.thenews.com.

pk/editorial_detail.asp?id=22817) on 2007-09-30. . Retrieved 2007-07-08.
[9] Pervaiz Iqbal (2004). The Armed Forces of Pakistan. Allen & Unwin. ISBN 1-86508-119-1.
[10] Rao, K. V. Krishna (1991). Prepare or perish: a study of national security (http://books.google.co. in/books?id=G7xPaJomYsEC&

lpg=PA123&dq=Operation Gibraltar Casualties&pg=PA123#v=onepage&q&f=false). Lancer Publishers, pp. 123.

Operation Gibraltar 390

ISBN 978-81-7212-001-6. .
[11] Karim, Major General Afsir (retd) (19 September 2005). "The 1965 War: Lessons yet to be learnt" (http://in.rediff.com/news/2005/sep/

19war.htm). The Rediff Special. Rediff.com India Ltd. . Retrieved 2007-07-08.
[12] Grand Slam — A Battle of Lost Opportunities (http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm) by Major (Retd.) Agha

Humayun Amin, Defence Journal (Pakistan), September 2000
[13] Ahmad, Mustasad (1997). Living up to heritage: history of the Rajput Regiment 1947-1970 (http://books.google.co.in/

books ?id=QmbePs-M2TgC&lpg=PA244&dq=Operation Gibraltar Casualties&pg=PA245#v=onepage&q&f=false). Lancer Publishers,.

pp. 245. .
[14] Singh, Sukhwant. India's Wars Since Independence (http://books.google.co. in/books ?id=jlVawuyUS-cC&lpg=PA216&dq=Operation

Gibraltar Casualties&pg=PA416#v=onepage&q&f=false). pp. 416. .
[15] Sehgal, Ikram. "GIBRALTAR-2" (http://www.defencejournal.com/jul99/gibraltor-2.htm). Defence Journal (reproduced from The

Nation newspaper). Dynavis (Pvt) Ltd. . Retrieved 2007-07-08.
[16] My Frozen Turbulence in Kashmir (7th Edition), pp 409
[17] Faruqui, Ahmad. "Remembering 6th of September 1965" (http://web.archive.Org/web/20070930165129/http://www.pakistanlink.

com/Opinion/2004/Sept04/17/05.html). Pakistan Link. Archived from the original (http://www.pakistanlink.com/Opinion/2004/

Sept04/17/05.html) on 2007-09-30. . Retrieved 2007-07-08.
[18] A Region in Turmoil: South Asian Conflicts Since 1947 By Rob Johnson, Page 143, Published by Reaktion Books, 2005, ISBN

1-86189-257-8
[19] Haji Pir conqueror says handing it back to Pak was a mistake by Josy Joseph (http://www.rediff.com/news/2002/dec/21haji.htm)

December 22, 2002 - Rediff
[20] South Asia in World Politics By Devin T. Hagerty, 2005 Rowman & Littlefield, ISBN 0-7425-2587-2, pp 26
[21] "Nur Khan reminisces '65 war" (http://www.dawn.com/2005/09/06/nat2.htm). Pakistan's Dawn (newspaper). 6 September 2005. .

Retrieved 2006-07-08.
[22] Kashmir in the Shadow of War: regional rivalries in a nuclear age By Robert G. Wirsing Pg 158
[23] Mehdi, Col SG. "Operation Gibraltar — Role of SSG Para Commandos" (http://www.defencejournal.com/july98/1965war.htm). Defence

Journal. . Retrieved 2006-07-08.
[24] "Is a Kashmir solution in the offing?" (http://www.caps.org.pk/Papers/April2004.htm). Centre for Aerospace Power Studies. . Retrieved

2007-07-08.
[25] "Brig (Retd) Saeed Ismat, SJ in a Q&A session ("What do you have to say about 1965 war?")" (http://www.defencejournal.com/2001/

november/ismat.htm). Defence Journal. November 2001. . Retrieved 2007-07-08.
[26] Refer to the main article Second Kashmir War for a detailed referenced analysis on the post-war fallout.

References

• Brigadier Shaukat Qadir of PAF on Operation Gibraltar: Battle that never was (http://in.rediff.com/news/
2005/sep/08warl.htm) — Hosted on Rediff.com

• Grand Slam — A Battle of Lost Opportunities (http://www.defencejournal.com/2000/sept/grand-slam.htm)
by Major (Retd.) Agha Humayun Amin, Defence Journal (Pakistan), September 2000

• Hassan Abbas (2004). Pakistan's Drift Into Extremism: Allah, The Army, And America's War On Terror. M.E.
Sharpe. ISBN 0-7656-1497-9.

• Muhammad Musa (1983). My Version: India-Pakistan War 1965. Wajidalis.

• Encarta

Operation Meghdoot 391

Operation Meghdoot

Operation Meghdoot was the code-name for the Indian Armed Forces operation to capture the Siachen Glacier in
the disputed Kashmir region, precipitating the Siachen Conflict. Launched on 13 April 1984, this military operation
was unique as the first assault launched in the world's highest battlefield. The military action resulted in Indian
troops gaining control of the entire Siachen Glacier.

Today, the Indian Army deployment to forward positions along what is known as the Actual Ground Position Line
(AGPL) is also sometimes inaccurately referred to as Operation Meghdoot. Up to 10 Infantry Battalions each of the
Indian Army and Pakistani Army are actively deployed in altitudes up to 6,400 metres (21,000 ft).

Cause of conflict

The Siachen Glacier became a bone of contention following a vague demarcation of territory as per the Simla
Agreement of 1972, which did not exactly specify who had authority over the Siachen Glacier area. Indian
interpretation was that Pakistan territory is until Saltoro ridge. Pakistan interpretation was their territory is until
Karakoram pass. As a result of this misinterpretation, both nations claimed the barren heights. In the 1970s and early
80s, Pakistan permitted several mountaineering expeditions to climb the peaks in the Siachen region from the
Pakistani side, in an attempt to reinforce their claim on the area as these expeditions received permits obtained from
the Government of Pakistan and in many cases a liaison officer from the Pakistan army accompanied the teams. In
1978, the Indian Army also allowed mountaineering expeditions to the glacier, approaching from its side. The most
notable one was the one launched by Colonel Narinder "Bull" Kumar of the Indian Army, who led the expedition to
Teram Kangri. The Indian Air Force provided valuable support to this expedition in 1978 through logistic support
and supply of fresh rations. The first air landing on the Glacier was carried out on 6 October 1978 when two
casualties were evacuated from the Advance Base Camp in a Chetak helicopter by Sqn Ldr Monga and Flying
Officer Manmohan Bahadur. Contention over the glacier was aggravated by these expeditions, through both sides
asserting their claims.

Notably, when Pakistan gave permission to a Japanese expedition to scale an important peak (Rimo I) in 1984, it
further fueled the suspicion of the Indian Government of Pakistani attempts to legitimize their claim. The peak,
located east of the Siachen Glacier, also overlooks the northwestern areas of the Aksai Chin area which is occupied
by China but claimed by India. The Indian military believed that such an expedition could further a link for a trade
route from the southwestern (Chinese) to the northeastern (Pakistani) side of the Karakoram Range and eventually
provide a strategic, if not tactical, advantage to the Pakistani Armed Forces.

The operation

In 1983, Pakistani generals decided to stake their claim through troop deployments to the Siachen glacier. After
analysing the Indian Army's mountaineering expeditions, they feared that India might capture key ridges and passes
near the glacier, and decided to send their own troops first. Islamabad ordered Arctic-weather gear from a supplier

from London, unaware that the same supplier provided outfits to the Indians. The Indians were informed about this

T31
development and initiated their own plan, providing them with a head start.

Having received intelligence inputs about planned Pakistani action in the area, India decided to prevent Pakistan
from legitimizing its claim on the glacier and eventually stop future expeditions to the glacier from the Pakistani
side. Accordingly, the Indian military decided to deploy troops from Northern Ladakh region as well as some
paramilitary forces to the glacier area. Most of the troops had been acclimatized to the extremities of the glacier
through a training expedition to Antarctica in 1982.

The Indian Army planned an operation to occupy the glacier by 13 April 1984, to preempt the Pakistani Army by
about 4 days, as intelligence had reported that the Pakistani operation planned to occupy the glacier by 17 April.

Operation Meghdoot 392

Named for the divine cloud messenger, Meghaduta, from the 4th century AD Sanskrit play by Kalidasa, "Operation
Meghdoot" was led by Lieutenant General Prem Nath Hoon, the then General Officer Commanding-in-Chief
(GOC-in-C) of the Indian Army's Northern Command based at Udhampur in Jammu & Kashmir.

Preparations for Operation Meghdoot started with the airlift of Indian Army soldiers by the Indian Air Force (IAF).
The IAF used 11-76, An- 12 and An-32 to transport stores and troops as well to airdrop supplies to high altitude
airfields. From there Mi-17, Mi-8 and HAL Chetak helicopters carried provisions and personnel to the east of the
hitherto unsealed peaks.

The first phase of the operation began in March 1984 with the march on foot to the eastern base of the glacier. A full
battalion of the Kumaon Regiment and units from the Ladakh Scouts, marched with full battle packs through an
ice-bound Zoji La pass for days. The units under the command of Lieutenant Colonel (later Brigadier) D. K.
Khanna were moved on foot to avoid detection of large troop movements by Pakistani radars.

The first unit to establish postition on the heights of the glacier was led by Major (later Lieutenant Colonel) R. S.

Sandhu. The next unit led by Captain Sanjay Kulkarni secured Bilafond La. The remaining forward deployment

units then marched and climbed for four days under the command of Captain P. V. Yadav to secure the remaining

Mi
heights of the Saltoro Ridge. By April 13, approximately 300 Indian troops were dug into the critical peaks and

passes of the glacier. By the time Pakistan troops managed to get into the immediate area, they found that the Indian

troops had occupied all 3 major mountain passes of Sia La, Gyong La and Bilafond La and all the commanding

heights of the Saltoro Ridge west of Siachen Glacier. Handicapped by the altitude and the limited time, Pakistan

could only manage to control the Saltoro Ridge's western slopes and foothills despite the fact that Pakistan possessed

more ground accessible routes to the area, unlike Indian access which was largely reliant on air drops for supplies

due to the steeper eastern side of the glacier.

In his memoirs, former Pakistani president, General Pervez Musharraf states that Pakistan lost almost 900 sq mi
(unknown operator: u'strong' km ) of territory. Time magazine states that the Indian advance captured nearly
1000 sq mi (unknown operator: u'strong 1 km ) of territory claimed by Pakistan. Camps were soon converted to
permanent posts by both countries. The number of casualties on both sides during this particular operation is not
known.

Aftermath

There are divergent views on the strategic value of the Operation. Some view it as a futile capture of non-strategic
land which antagonized relations between India and Pakistan. Others consider the operation to be a "daring" success
by the Indian Military and ensured that the Indian military held tactical high ground on the strategic Saltoro Ridge
just west of the glacier, albeit at a high cost. The Indian Army currently controls all of the 70 kilometres (unknown
operator: u'strong' mi) long Siachen Glacier and all of its tributary glaciers, as well as the three main passes of the
Saltoro Ridge immediately west of the glacier, Sia La, Bilafond La, and Gyong La, thus holding onto the tactical
advantage of high ground.

The operation and the continued cost of maintaining logistics to the area is a major drain on both militaries. Pakistan
launched an all out assault in 1987 and again in 1989 to capture the ridge and passes held by India. The first assault
was headed by then-Brigadier-General Pervez Musharraf (later President of Pakistan) and initially managed to
capture a few high points before being beaten back. Later the same year, Pakistan lost at least one major Pakistani
post, the "Quaid", which came under Indian control as Bana Post, in recognition of Subedar Major Bana Singh who
launched a daring daylight attack, codenamed "Operation Rajiv", after climbing 1500 ft (unknown operator:
u'strong' m) of ice cliff. Naib Subedar Bana Singh was awarded the Param Vir Chakra (PVC) — the highest
gallantry award of India for the assault that captured the post. Bana Post is the highest battlefield post in the world
today at a height of 22143 feet (unknown operator: u'strong' m) above sea level. The second assault in 1989

was also unsuccessful as the ground positions did not change. The loss of most of the Siachen area and the
subsequent unsuccessful military forays prompted Benazir Bhutto to taunt Zia ul Haq that he should wear a burqa as

Operation Meghdoot 393

he had lost his manliness.

Operation Meghdoot was seen by some as the blueprint behind the Kargil War in 1999 when Pakistan backed
terrorists and paramilitary forces covertly occupied the Kargil region. Some obvious similarities exist between
Siachen and Kargil, including their preemptive nature and the tactical advantage held by the entity who holds the
heights. But while Operation Meghdoot was launched in an area of ambiguous border demarcation, the Line of
Control in the Kargil region is clearly demarcated and therefore India received complete international support during
the Kargil episode.

Casualties

No reliable data available. However, both sides have taken most of their casualties from the weather and the terrain.
A large number of soldiers from both sides have suffered frostbite and high altitude sickness, or been lost to
avalanches or crevasses during patrols.

Notes

[i] http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/iAF/History/1990s/siachen01.htmi

[2] "War at the Top of the World" (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1079528,00.html). Time Magazine. 24 July 2005. .

Retrieved 2011-12-30.
[3] "War at the Top of the World" (http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501050711/story2.html). Time. 1 November 2005. .
[4] "Operation Meghdoot" (http://indianarmy.nic. in/Site/FormTemplete/frmTemp3PLMMCRM6C.aspx?MnId=GWOq5gm/

3bWnw01bjgMFeA==&ParentID=PUXKeyfrbKTnUWp21VC0YA==). Indian Army. .
[5] Pervez Musharraf (2006). In the Line of Fire: A Memoir. Free Press. ISBN 0-7432-8344-9.(pp. 68-69)
[6] The Himalayas War at the Top Of the World (http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958254-2,00.html) 31 July 1989 -

TIME
[7] http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE6-l/Siachen.html
[8] NOORANI, A.G. (Mar. 10, 2006). "For the first time, the leaders of India and Pakistan seem close to finding a solution to the Kashmir

problem." (http://www.frontlineonnet.com/fl2304/stories/200603 10001704400.htm). For a detailed, current map. . Retrieved April 29,

2012.
[9] "Project Hope" (http://in.rediff.com/news/2001/jan/25hope.htm). Rediff. 2001-01-25. . Retrieved 201 1-12-30.
[10] "Confrontation at Siachen, 26 June 1987" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/History/1984/290-Confrontation.html).

Bharat Rakshak. . Retrieved 2011-12-30.
[11] Demilitarisation of Siachin by Air Marshal [R] Ayaz A Khan (http://pakobserver.net/200607/05/Articles01. asp?txt=Demilitarisation of

Siachin)

References

• Defence India (http://www.defenceindia.com/def_common/siachen.html)

• Indian Air Force (http://armedforces.nic.in/airforce/majopl.htm)

• Gen. Mehta on Kargil and Siachen (http://www.rediff.com/republic/2000/jan/29mehta.htm) - Rediff.com

• Siachen disengagement (http://www.dailytimes.com.pk/default.asp?page=story_l-12-2002_pg3_3) - Article
in Daily Times

• War at the top of the World (http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/501050711/story.html) - Article in
TIME.

• Siachen War (http://www.pakdef.info/pakmilitary/army/siachen/indexl.html)

External links

• The buildup to Operation Meghdoot by Wing Commander M. Bahadur (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/
History/ 1 990s/SiachenO 1 .html)

Operation Safed Sagar

394

Operation Safed Sagar

Operation Safed Sagar was the codename assigned to the Indian Air Force's strike to support the Ground troops
during Operation Vijay that was aimed to flush out Regular and Irregular troops of the Pakistani Army from vacated
Indian Positions in the Kargil sector along the Line of Control. It was the first large scale use of air power in the
Jammu and Kashmir region since the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971.

Ground operations

Indian Air Force

Nabha Sparsham Deeptam
"Touch the Sky with Glory"

Headquarters

New Delhi

History and traditions

History of the Indian Air Force
(established 8 October 1932)

Personnel

Marshal of the Indian Air Force

Chief of the Air Staff

Indian Air Force ranks and insignia

Aircraft

Aircraft of the Indian Air Force

Installations

Initial infiltrations were noticed in Kargil in early May, 1999. Because of the extreme winter weather in Kashmir, it
was common practice for the Indian and Pakistan Army to abandon forward posts and reoccupy them in the spring.
That particular spring, the Pakistan Army reoccupied the forward posts before the scheduled time not only theirs but
also which belonged to India, in a bid to capture Kashmir.

By the second week of May, an ambush on an Indian army patrol acting on a tip-off by a local shepherd in the
Batalik sector led to the exposure of the infiltration. Initially with little knowledge of the nature or extent of the
encroachment, the Indian troops in the area initially claimed that they would evict them within a few days. However,
soon reports of infiltration elsewhere along the LoC made it clear that the entire plan of attack was on a much bigger
scale. India responded with Operation Vijay, a mobilisation of 200,000 Indian troops. However, because of the
nature of the terrain, division and corps operations could not be mounted; the scale of most fighting was at the
regimental or battalion level. In effect, two divisions of the Indian Army, numbering 20,000, along with several

Operation Safed Sagar 395

thousand from the Paramilitary forces of India and the air force were deployed in the conflict zone, the Indian Army
moved into the region in full force. Soon, the intruders were found to be well entrenched and while artillery attacks
had produced results in certain areas, more remote ones needed the help of the air force.

Air operations

The Indian Air Force (IAF) was first approached to provide air support on 1 1 May with the use of helicopters. On 21
May a Canberra on a reconnaissance mission, flown by Sqn Ldr A Perumal and Sqn Ldr UK Jha, was hit by ground
fire. The flight was however, recovered safely, and returned to base on one engine. On 25 May, the Cabinet
Committee on Security authorized the IAF to mount attacks on the infiltrators without crossing the LoC. Initial
indications from the government to the IAF was to operate only Attack helicopters. However, the Chief of Air Staff
put forth the argument that in order to create a suitable environment for the helicopters, fighter action was required.
On 26 May, the go-ahead was given and the IAF started its strike role . Flying from the Indian airfields of Srinagar,
Avantipur and Adampur, ground attack aircraft MiG-21s, MiG-23s, MiG-27s, Jaguars and the Mirage 2000 struck
insurgent positions. Of note, although the MiG-21 is built mainly for air interception with a secondary role of ground
attack, it is capable of operating in restricted spaces which was of importance in the Kargil terrain.

The first strikes were launched on the 26 May, when the Indian Air Force struck infiltrator positions with fighter
aircraft and helicopter gunships. The initial strikes saw MiG-27s carrying out offensive sorties, with MiG-21s and

(later) MiG-29s providing fighter cover. Mi- 17 gunships were also deployed in the Tololing sector. Srinagar

T21
Airport was at this time closed to civilian air-traffic and dedicated to the Indian Air Force.

However, on 27 May, the first fatalities were suffered when a MiG-21 and a MiG-27 jets were lost over Batalik
Sector to enemy action and mechanical failure, respectively. The following day, a Mi-17 was lost- with the loss
of all four of the crew- when it was hit by three stingers while on an offensive sortie. These losses forced the
Indian Air Force to reassess its strategy. The helicopters were immediately withdrawn from offensive roles as a
measure against the man-portable missiles in possession of the infiltrators.

On 30 May, the Indian Air Force called into operation the Mirage 2000 which was deemed the best aircraft capable
of optimum performance under the conditions of high-altitude seen in the zone of conflict. Armed initially with
250 kg "dumb" bombs, No. 7 Squadron over three days, struck infiltrator positions in Muntho Dhalo, Tiger Hill and
Point 4388 in the Drass Sector. The strikes on Muntho Dhalo on 17 June also destroyed logistics and re-supply
capabilities of the infiltrators in the Batalik Sector. Through the last weeks of June, the Mirages, armed with LGBs
as well as with "dumbs", repeatedly struck the heavily defended Tiger Hill. The first of these missions were observed
by the (then) Chief of Air Staff, ACM AY Tipnis [3]

The choppers used were Mi-8 and the Mi-17. The transport planes were Avro, An-32 and IL-76. On May 27, the IAF
had sent a MiG-27 on a photo reconnaissance mission over the Indian side of the Line of Control in Kashmir. Piloted
by Fit Lt K Nachiketa, he ejected from his MiG-27 after an engine flameout. Squadron Leader Ajay Ahuja, who was
in his MiG-21 tried to trace the downed MiG despite a blatant threat in the form of enemy Anti-Aircraft Guns.
Within minutes his plane was shot at by a Stinger shoulder fired missile. Having crashed, it is believed by the Indian
military that he survived the crash but was killed by Pakistan Army soldiers or irregulars. The body of Ahuja bore
two point-blank bullet wounds as per the postmortem done by the Indian authorities. The point-blank injuries clearly
indicate the intent of the enemy and a treatment in violation of Geneva conventions. Fit Lt Nachiketa was later
paraded on Pakistan TV, this prompted India to accuse Pakistan of violating the Geneva convention on the treatment
of Prisoners of War.

The next day the air force lost an Mi-17 Helicopter to a shoulder fired missile near Tololing, killing the crew of four.
This resulted in a change in strategy and technology. With the Israelis providing around 100 Laser-guided bomb kits
to the Indian Military, the air force chose to make maximum use of this and retaliated with regular sorties on
Pakistani occupied bunkers. The aircraft operated at 10,000 meters AGL (33,000 feet above sea level), well out of
MANPADs range, leading to a drop in the accuracy rate of the bombs. The low number of airstrips for take off and

Operation Safed Sagar 396

landing of the flights also constrained the efficiency of the attacks. Despite this, there were hundreds of sorties on the
intruders with no further material or personnel casualties enabling a gradual takeover of the mountain posts by Indian
troops. According to IAF the "air strikes against the Pakistani infiltrators, supply camps and other targets yielded rich
dividends."

By July all the remaining intruders had withdrawn and the operation was ended, being declared a success by the IAF
in having achieved its primary objectives. However there has also been criticism of the methods initially used and
the type of planes being unsuitable to the terrain that resulted in early losses. [6] This is believed by many in the air
force as coming as a wake up call to upgrade the aging fleet of craft (especially the attack aircraft and helicopters) to
better enable them to fight in the mountainous region. But, in the context of the war and in light of the poor
information available on the infiltrations, the Indian Air Force was able to coordinate well with the Army and
provide air support to the recapture of most the posts before Pakistan decided to withdraw its remaining troops.

Aftermath

The lessons learned in this limited war influenced India to urgently upgrade its combat fleet. It acquired and later
started co-developing Sukhoi Su-30MKI heavy fighters with Russia beginning in the early 2000s. The process of
acquiring 126 Medium Multi-role Combat Aircraft was also initiated in 2001, India's largest military tender to date.
Dassault Rafale was declared the winner in January 2012.

References and sources

[1] Lessons from Kargil. Gen VP Malik. Bharat-Rakshak Monitor (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/MONITOR/ISSUE4-6/malik.html)

[2] India launches Kashmir air attack BBC News. May 26 1999 (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/352995.stm)

[3] The Kargil Operations. The Mirage-2000 at Kargil. Bharat-rakshak.com (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/IAF/History/Kargil/

PCamp.html)
[4] India loses two jets. BBC News. May 27 1999 (http://news.bbc.co.Uk/l/hi/world/south_asia/354120.stm)
[5] "Flyer pushes frontier again - Nachiketa returns to area where his plane was shot down" (http://www.telegraphindia.com/1060522/asp/

frontpage/story_6254165.asp). Telegraph India. . Retrieved 2006-09-18.

• Official version of Operation Safed Sagar (http://indianarmy.nic.in/arkargil/news.htm)

• Operation Safed Sagar: A Doctrine Rewritten (http://mod.nic.in/samachar/oct01-02/html/ch2.htm)

Battle of Phillora 397

Battle of Phillora

The Battle of Phillora was one of the largest tank battles fought during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. It was the
first major engagement between the two nations in the Sialkot sector and coincided with the Battle of Asal Uttar.

Battle

The battle started on 10 September, when Indian troops launched a massive attack at the Phillora sector. Its 1st
Armoured Division was on the offensive in that area. Equipped with four armoured regiments, this division faced
stiff opposition from the Pakistani 6th Armoured Division. The initial Indian drives were pushed back towards
Gadgor for a loss of 15 tanks. Pakistani air attacks did little damage to the tank columns and more to lorry and
infantry columns. For the next two days intense fighting continued and the outnumbered Pakistani troops made a
tactical retreat towards Chawinda. At this point India claimed to destroyed 67 Pakistani tanks. However, military
historian Steve Zaloga regarded the Indian claim as "ludicrous".

According to ex Pakistan Army Major(retd.)and Military historian A.H Amin summed up the failure of the Pakistani
armour at the battle of Phillora "....6 Armoured Division ordered Guides(lOth) Cavalry and 14 FF to mount an attack
from Bhagowal-Bhureshah area against the right flank of the Indians aimed at area Libbe-Chahr at 1130 hours on
11th September. The aim of this attack was to relieve pressure on 11 Cavalry. This Guides had a severe firefight with
16 Light Cavalry losing many tanks as well as destroying some enemy tanks but was unable to make any impression
and the main Indian attack against 1 1 Cavalry holding Phillora proceeded smoothly .Phillora was captured by the
Indians on 1530 hours on 11th September. 11 Cavalry fought well and lost so many tanks that from 11th September
onwards it ceased to function as a complete tank regiment". Howerver Major Amin also criticized India for its
strategic miscalculation "The Indians fought well but in the overall strategic context capture of Phillora was of little
consequence. Had the Indians shown similar resolution and a little more coup d oeil and modified their plans at the
brigade and divisional level on 8 September, by 1 1 September they would have been leisurely holding the east bank
ofMRL. [2]

Pakistani Official History of the 6th Armoured Division "Men of Steel" that states that 35 tanks were left in Indian
control (17 M48, 9 M47, 9 M36B2) but that nine of these were recovered after the war when Indian troops vacated
the area held by then.

Conclusion

On September 12, 1965, the tank battle at Phillora ended in an important decisive victory for the Indian Army with

the Pakistani forces retreating and regrouping to put up a last stand at Chawinda. A day before, the Indian

Army had experienced another victory at Asal Uttar when they successfully thwarted Pakistani offensive in the

Khem Karan sector. The continued thrust by the Indian Army into Pakistani territory finally culminated in the Battle

of Chawinda, where Indian army's advance was successfully halted. On 22 September with the signing of ceasefire,

mi
all the offensives were ceased on that front. On 22 September the United Nations Security Council unanimously

passed a resolution that called for an unconditional ceasefire from both nations. The war ended the following

day. India Still retained almost 200 square miles(518 square kilometres) of Pakistan territory in the Sialkot sector

including the villages of Phillora,Pagowal,Maharajke,Gadgor,Bajagrahi etc. which was returned to Pakistan after the

Tashket Declaration.

Battle of Phillora 398

References

[1] Zaloga, Steve (1999) The M47 and M48 Patton tanks ISBN 1-85532-825-9 pg.34-35.

[2] Amin, Major Agha H.. "Situation Leading to and Battle of Phillora" (http://pavocavalry.wordpress.com/2008/ll/17/

situation-leading-to-and-battle-of-phillora-click-to-enlarge-maps-1965-1965-war-map-conceived-and-drawn-by-ah-amin-indian-army-pakistan-army-pa/

). Think Tank. AH Amin. . Retrieved 11 July 2011.
[3] rakshak, bharat. "phillora" (http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Galleries/Wars/PattonNagar/1965/). defence.

bharat rakshak. . Retrieved 18 November 201 1.
[4] Barua, Pradeep (2005) The state at war in South Asia ISBN 0-8032-1344-1 pg.192.
[5] Pradhan, R.D.. 1965 war, the inside story. Atlantic Publishers & Distributors, 2007. ISBN 81-269-0762-2, 9788126907625.

Tangail Airdrop

The Tangail Airdrop was an airborne operation mounted on 11 December 1971 by the 2nd Parachute Battalion
Group of the Indian Army during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971. The main objective of the operation was the
capture of Poongli Bridge on the Jamuna which would cut off the 93 Brigade of Pakistani Army which was
retreating from the north to defend Dacca and its approaches. The Paratroop unit was also tasked to link up with the
advancing Maratha Light Infantry on the ground to advance towards the East Pakistani capital.

Objectives

The Paratroopers, numbering 700 and led by Lt Col Kulwant Singh Pannu was reinforced by an Artillery battery, an
Engineering detachment, an ADS, and a surgical team and other administrative troops from 50th (Indep) Parachute
Brigade. Tasked to cut off the retreat of the Pakistani troops from the north towards Dacca, the unit touched ground
at 4:30pm and were greeted by a jubilant crowd of local Bengali populace, with some even helping the troops carry
their packs and ammunition. The drop was dispersed over a wide area, but the Paras regrouped quickly and
commenced their attack. By 7.00pm they had captured their main objective, cutting off the Pakistani 93 Brigade
retreating from the north. Link-up with 1 Maratha LI was established after the Marathas broke through at Tangail
Road and reached the bridgehead that very evening. The Pakistanis, attempting to retake the bridge rushed the Indian
positions that evening, however, were repulsed.

The Tangail Airdrop operation involved An-12, C-119s, 2 Caribous and Dakotas from 11 sqn and 48 Sqn. The IAF
also carried out feint drops using dummies dropped from Caribou aircraft to hide the true location and extent of the
operation. The only hitch was a Hangup from the lead Dakota. One Paratrooper had a static line hangup, who, after
carrying out emergency procedures, was dropped safely about 50 miles away.

Aftermath

The Tangail Airdrop and the subsequent capture of the Poongli bridge over Jamuna by 2nd Para Bn Gp gave the
advancing Indian Army the maneouverability to side step the strongly held Tongi-Dacca Road to take the
undefended Manikganj -Dacca Road right up to Mirpur Bridge at the gates of Dacca.

Battle Awards

• Lt Col Kulwant Singh was awarded the MVC for his leadership in battle.

Battle of Tololing 399

Battle of Tololing

The Battle of Tololing was one of the pivotal battles in the Kargil War between India's armed forces and troops
from the Northern Light Infantry who were aided by other Pakistan backed irregulars in 1999. The Tololing is a
dominant position overlooking the Srinagar - Leh Highway (NH ID) and was a vital link. The Indian army's
casualties on the Tololoing peak were half of the entire losses in the whole war. Much of the losses had to do with
the nature of the terrain as World War I style frontal charges had to be mounted to reclaim the peaks to dislodge the
intruders. The 3 week assault finally culminated with India taking control of the peak and changing the course of the
war. 23 Indian Soldiers were killed in the final assault, resulting in one of the costliest battles of the entire war.

Major Rajesh Adhikari (posthumously) and Digendra Kumar were awarded the Maha Vir Chakra, India's second
highest military honour for their daring actions on the peak.

External links

• Bharat Rakshak [1]

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Operation Dwarka Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=489478443 Contributors: Altetendekrabbe, Anotherclown, Ardfern, AshLin, Camw, Chanakyathegreat, Cleared as filed,
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Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=4943 1 1 325 Contributors: ABDEVILLIERS0007, AMbroodEY, Adeel45f, Aditya Gautam, Afaruqui, Agentbla,
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Bangladesh Liberation War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494779166 Contributors: AA, Aalaan, Aaron Pris, Aditya Kabir, Afil, Ahoerstemeier, Ahsaninam, Ahuitzotl,
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1971 Bangladesh atrocities Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492483789 Contributors: ASmartKid, Aashaa, Abbasfirnas887, Aditya Kabir, Ajdz, Alihaidermahomed,
Altzinn, Archerblack, Ardfern, Bangaljubok, Beebl44, Belovedfreak, BengaliHindu, Bostonbrahmin20, Bunnyhopl 1, Caknuck, Chechtal, Chrisahn, Clerical worker, Closedmouth, Cometstyles,
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Vontrotta, Westsider, Wikireader41, Willard84, Woohookitty, YellowMonkey, Zoltarpanaflex, 162 anonymous edits

Indo-Pakistani Naval War of 1971 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491944994 Contributors: Aldis90, Amritsingh3aa, Anotherclown, Chris the speller, CommonsDelinker,
DBigXray, DagosNavy, Hugo999, IronboyI 1 , John of Reading, Kam Solusar, LindsayH, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rich Farmbrough, Swift&silent, TopGun, Uzdzislaw, Zuggernaut, 21 anonymous edits

East Pakistan Air Operations, 1971 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493040295 Contributors: Aditya Kabir, Ageekgal, Anotherclown, Aspects, Bartleby, Bilalsafdarl ,
Bility, Bkell, Canadian, Chatfecter, D6, DBigXray, Darklilac, EoGuy, Gaganl 1111, Greenshed, Grexx, IronboyI 1 , Jaiiaf, Jeremiestrother, John of Reading, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, Looper5920,
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ever I am2, YashtlOl, Yousaf465, 40 anonymous edits

Instrument of Surrender (1971) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=484714476 Contributors: Ardfern, AshLin, DBigXray, Dudeman5685, Good Olfactory, Howcheng,
Idleguy, Jayantanth, Jon Ascton, Mar4d, Nv8200p, Nyanyoka, Ratibgreat, Remember the dot, Rettetast, Rillian, Rockfang, Rueben lys, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Shahab, Shyamsunder, SimonD,
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Kargil War Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492089975 Contributors: 1 lachitturi, 2842 1 u2232nfenfcenc, AMbroodEY, Aajiz, Aaron Brenneman, Aatif.abdullah, Abeer.ag,
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Kargil order of battle Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=490610253 Contributors: Avalon, Gotthide, Hmains, Idleguy, Jasynnash2, Mzajac, Penalba2000, Rjwilmsi,
Smsarmad, 6 anonymous edits

Smiling Buddha Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492941265 Contributors: 62.253. 64.xxx, ASHOKB INDUS ARA, Aarchiba, Aekbal, Amalthea, Andre Engels, Anirluph,
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Kirana Hills Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494276790 Contributors: Abulfazl, Aldis90, DBigXray, Darwinek, Glacialfox, Goustien, Green Giant, Ground Zero,
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Pokhran-II Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492780574 Contributors: Abhishekmathur, Ahseaton, Akarkera, Alcoved id, Aleezain, Anirluph, Ankitbhatt, Anurag bhd,
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Chagai-I Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494894485 Contributors: Ahsaniqbal 93, Aleezain, Alexander Karas, Allegro con brio, Ambuj.Saxena, Anirluph, ApocnolO, Arnab
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Kharan Desert Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491321864 Contributors: Auntof6, Binksternet, BjKa, DBigXray, Edith Smitters, Emijrp, Firsfron, Hugo999, Ironboyl 1,
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Indian integration of Junagadh Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=483939939 Contributors: Advil, Altetendekrabbe, Andrew Gwilliam, Ardfern, Atulsnischal,
Aumnamahashiva, Bogdan Nagachop, Caiaffa, CherrysmithI, Ekabhishek, EoGuy, Golgofrinchian, Ground Zero, Heracletus, Hugo999, Idleguy, Jethwarp, LibStar, Mandarax, Moonraker,
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Tutu 1 234, Umar Zulfikar Khan, Vimalkalyan, Vishnava, Yessrao, 34 anonymous edits

Siachen conflict Source: http: //en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=49 3 893030 Contributors: After Midnight, Akyoyo94, Alchemist Jack, Anish9500, Anotherclown, AshLin, Ashley Pomeroy,
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Operation Brasstacks Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=486046380 Contributors: Ashutosh s kelkar, AustralianRupert, Bondegezou, Boxerx, Buckshot06, Colonies Chris,
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Sir Creek Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=494908077 Contributors: Ambuj.Saxena, AnonMoos, Circeus, D6, DBigXray, DLinth, Deeptrivia, EagleFan, Gaius Cornelius,
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Insurgency in Jammu and Kashmir Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494908513 Contributors: A suyash, AI, Abecedare, Abhishek3092, AdultSwim, Ahoerstemeier, Aksi
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2001-2002 India-Pakistan standoff Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=490076693 Contributors: 2D, AI009, Ace of Raves, AdityaguptalOl, Andrewlpl991, Anonymi,
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India-Pakistan maritime trespassing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=431262615 Contributors: Canglesea, Good Olfactory, Mar4d, Ninetyone, Sardanaphalus, The Duke
of Waltham, Vishnava, 2 anonymous edits

Atlantique Incident Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=489477331 Contributors: Abhishekmathur, Akashiii, Anurag Garg, AppleJuggler, Ardfern, Atulsnischal, Bakasuprman,
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2011 India-Pakistan border shooting Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=4893 1 9552 Contributors: Adamdaley, Chocolate Horlicks, Joyson Prabhu, M-le-mot-dit, Mar4d,
Reenem, Rich Farmbrough

Hindustan Ki Kasam Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=480498897 Contributors: Bender235, CapitalLetterBeginning, DBigXray, David Gerard, Deavenger, Fahaam,
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Aakraman Source: http: //en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=49 3 323752 Contributors: Arjayay, Bender235, Chapultepec, Dr. Blofeld, Haphar, Huaiwei, Johnwilliammiller, Khushnood2,
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Vijeta Source: http://en. wikipedia.org/w/index. php?oldid=483495037 Contributors: Bhagalpuri, Bharatveer, Christopher Kraus, DBigXray, GoingBatty, Kranix, Last Contrarian, Prafullmalviya,
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Param Vir Chakra (film) Source: http: //en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=484948 829 Contributors: DBigXray, Vivvt

Border (1997 film) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492148919 Contributors: A. S. Aulakh, Abhi shek707, Abhinavdhere, Ajay Behal, AjitPD, Ashliveslove, Atulsnischal,
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Wyatt Riot, Yashveer r, 1 1 3 anonymous edits

LOC Kargil Source: http: //en. wikipedia.org/w /index. php'?oldid=492837666 Contributors: Adhirk, Akmal muqeeth, Anupam, Aparna rajesh, Artihcus022, Atulsnischal, BOLLYWOOD
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Deewaar (2004 film) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493792509 Contributors: Affl23a, AlmostReadytoFIy, Bukaj, Chillllls, Classicfilms, DJWalia, Daniel Quinlan, David
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TexasAndroid, Waacstats, Woohookitty, Yashveer r, 21 anonymous edits

Lakshya (film) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=4938 15886 Contributors: 1 lachitturi, Alansohn, Amitkinger, Animeshkulkarni, Archerblack, Ashwinkamath, Avadheshmalik,
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1971 (film) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=492820940 Contributors: Abgoswami, Adrian 1001, Akrahul, Auntof6, BilCat, Dr. Blofeld, Eakl0081, Ekabhishek,
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Kurukshetra (2008 film) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494563091 Contributors: Akhilml009, Anishviswa, Arfaz, Arjayay, AtticusX, Axe DB, Bangalorel02, DMacks,
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Sreejithk2000, SwanlO, VJose2012, Waacstats, YellowMonkey, 58 anonymous edits

Angar Wadi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=489057515 Contributors: Assassin's Creed, Chris the speller, TopGun, 1 anonymous edits

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Laag (TV series) Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492025434 Contributors: Assassin's Creed, AvicAWB, Mephistophelean, Shariq r82, TopGun, Woohookitty, 1 anonymous
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Alpha Bravo Charlie Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493295522 Contributors: Bearcat, Causantin, CommonsDelinker, Digitalsurgeon, Echuck215, Gajjul2345, Gulirfan,
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Sipahi Maqbool Hussain Source: http://e11.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?oldid=403 164547 Contributors: Bearcat, Funandtrvl, Mar4d, Mrizwankhan, Yeeshil, 5 anonymous edits

Operation Barisal Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494392994 Contributors: Anirluph, AustralianRupert, DagosNavy, Hugo999, Ironboyl 1, Maglorbd, Moonriddengirl, 5
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Operation Python Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491062887 Contributors: Aldis90, DBigXray, DJ Clayworth, Gilliam, HowardJWilk, Hugo999, Ironboyl 1, Kaushiklodh,
Nomadfromhell, Saroshp, Skcpublic, The Madras, Tonyl, TopGun, Ulricl313, UplinkAnsh, Wknight94, YellowMonkey, 15 anonymous edits

Operation Trident (1971) Source: http://en.wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=4 8 6966268 Contributors: Ala.foum, Ardfern, Awiseman, CALR, Chanakyathegreat, DBigXray, DJ Clayworth,
Engti, Haus, Herbu, Hibernian, Hugo999, Idleguy, Iohannes Animosus, Ironboyl 1 , John Smith's, Joshua Issac, JustAGal, Legaleagle86, Lightmouse, Mandarax, Marjaliisa, Mboverload, NickCT,
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TigerShark, Tonyl, TopGun, TrevelyanL85A2, UplinkAnsh, Vatsan34, Vishnava, XavierGreen, YUL89YYZ, Yousaf465, 22 anonymous edits

Battle of Asal Uttar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494759728 Contributors: Abecedare, Adil your, Agarwalsndp, Akashiappa, Akk7a, Alex. tan, Animum, Ardfern,
Awiseman, Axeman89, Azl568, Batinde, Bbik, Bkell, Boston, Bunnyhopl 1 , Chanakyathegreat, Chris the speller, ChrisCork, ChrisGualtieri, Clarityfiend, Cryptic, Cybersurg, DBigXray,
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Lahiru k, MadMax, Madhavacharya, Manormadman, Manxruler, Mellisa Anthony Jones, Mohammad adil, Muamshai, Nishkid64, Oliver202, Panzerkampfl990, R.D.H. (Ghost In The Machine),
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WikiTome, Wikireader41, Yousaf465, 159 anonymous edits

Battle of Atgram Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=463324472 Contributors: Ardfern, Arjayay, Bejnar, Chris the speller, Colonies Chris, Curb Chain, EoGuy, Gaius
Cornelius, Giraffedata, Grafen, Isolani, Jaihindl989, John of Reading, Kaul Rattan, Kevinsam, LtNOWIS, Majorly, Manxruler, NAHID, Ohconfucius, RJFJR, Rjwilmsi, Rueben lys,
Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Sintaku, Smsarmad, Thiseye, Welsh, 7 anonymous edits

Battle of Basantar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=494445716 Contributors: 123mnl23, Abu America, Aitias, Angusmclellan, Anthony Appleyard, Ardfern, Awadhesh016,
Chris the speller, DBigXray, Dabomb87, Deepak, Errormeek, FriendOfPanda, Fuhghettaboutit, Gaius Cornelius, Gardar Rurak, Giraffedata, Gorgani, GroovetimeS, Ground Zero, Hillel, Idleguy,
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Farooq, RajatKansal, Razzsic, Reenem, Rosiestep, Rueben lys, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Shyamsunder, Smsarmad, Spartiate, Thaagenson, Tim!, Tintinl 107, UplinkAnsh, Vinay84,
YellowMonkey, 54 anonymous edits

Battle of Boyra Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=493042387 Contributors: Ardfern, Awiseman, BD2412, Bharatveer, Bunnyhopl 1, Colonies Chris, DBigXray, DagosNavy,
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Max rspct, Medains, MilborneOne, Natobxl, Nollakersfan, Nv8200p, Nyanyoka, Nychotpilot, Ohconfucius, OsamaK, PhilKnight, R'n'B, Ranam, Rueben lys, Saggod, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp,
Scriptorium, Serein (renamed because of SUL), SfanOO IMG, ShelfSkewed, Shovon76, Shyamsunder, Skapur, Smsarmad, Tim!, TopGun, UplinkAnsh, Watcher2009, Woohookitty, Xezbeth, 104
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Battle of Chamb Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=490081715 Contributors: Abstract27, Alvin Seville, Bearcat, Bilalsafdarl, CommonsDelinker, DBigXray, Dondegroovily,
EoGuy, Excirial, Fluffy WhiteCat, Hmains, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, LindsayH, M.A.R 1993, Malcolma, Prashant2a, Qetuth, R'n'B, RIPGC, Saroshp, Saumoarush, Smalljim, UplinkAnsh,
Woohookitty, 13 anonymous edits

Battle of Dhalai Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=390235724 Contributors: Aditya Kabir, Amalas, Anthony Appleyard, Bearcat, Berek, Publicus, Rosiestep, Sandip90,
Saroshp, 1 anonymous edits

Battle of Kushtia Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?oldid=460342863 Contributors: Aditya Kabir, Anthony Appleyard, Bearcat, Berek, OverlordQ, Rueben lys, Tawnfeather, 2
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Capture of Kishangarh Fort Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=494481857 Contributors: Akarkera, Ardfern, Awaisl41, Bilalsafdarl, DBigXray, Gareth Griffith-Jones,
Hmains, Hugo999, Jovianeye, Katharineamy, M.A.R 1993, Sardanaphalus, Shovon76, Shyamsunder, Smsarmad, Sparten, Thiseye, Tim!, Timl357, TopGun, UplinkAnsh, Usman Ajm,
Warrior4321, 19 anonymous edits

Battle of Garibpur Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493891363 Contributors: Angusmclellan, Ardfern, Awiseman, Awotter, Bobol92, Brainhell, Calaschysm, Dabomb87,
Descendall, Deuterium 1, Enric Naval, Errormeek, FLafaire, Gromell, Howcheng, Hvl972, Idleguy, LilHelpa, MadMax, Nigelquinine, Ohconfucius, Olegwiki, Patar knight, Peter Karlsen, R'n'B,
Ranam, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, Rueben lys, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Shyamsunder, Smsarmad, Sus scrofa, SwisterTwister, Tim!, Varlaam, Woohookitty, YellowMonkey, 30 anonymous
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Battle of Gazipur Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=476379129 Contributors: Ardfern, Betacommand, Chris the speller, Gromell, Guy M, Hemlock Martinis, Hugo999,
J.delanoy, Kaul Rattan, Markiewp, Patar knight, R'n'B, Reenem, Rueben lys, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Smsarmad, Valentinejoesmith, Welsh, WereSpielChequers, 3 anonymous edits

Battle of Hilli Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=48 1 1 67077 Contributors: Ardfern, Bhadani, Bharatveer, Bobblewik, Bunchofgrapes, CalJW, Canihuan300, Chevymontecarlo,
Chris the speller, ConstantinetheGreat, DBigXray, Dabomb87, Deepak, EdJohnston, El C, Emersoni, Er.arunthakur, Errormeek, Euryalus, EyeSerene, Firsfron, Gil Gamesh, Gopall035,
GraemeLeggett, Hockeyl 17, I Have Proofs to what I say, Ian Pitchford, Idleguy, J04n, Kingolf, Lightmouse, Mail2amitabha, Manishkumarmalll971, Maung, Mboverload, Mike Rosoft, Mike
Young, Militaryhistorystudent, Naweedanwar, Neutrality, Nick Number, Nyanyoka, Pmonon, Ragib, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Rosiestep, Rueben lys, Shiva (Visnu), Sam
Hocevar, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Shyamsunder, Slightsmile, Smalljim, Smsarmad, Thunderboltz, YellowMonkey, 58 anonymous edits

Defence of KamalPur Source: http://en.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?oldid=494948778 Contributors: AustralianRupert, John of Reading, Militaryhistorystudent, Riotrocket8676, SMasters,
Sharthopor. Wikishagnik, Woohookitty, 2 anonymous edits

Khemkaran Source: http://en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=4947 62690 Contributors: Abecedare, Adil your, Allenwalla, Asfandyar, Azeemsarwar, Bilsonius, BrownHairedGirl,
ChrisGualtieri, Climie.ca, Colonies Chris, Crusoe8181, DBigXray, DGG, Endomion, Eraserheadl, Errormeek, GDibyendu, Giraffedata, HJ Mitchell, Hamid53, Idleguy, IndianGeneralist,
Jaraalbe, Jaspreetwilly, Joel7687, Jon Ascton, Ketiltrout, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Mjsabby, Nishkid64, Nyanyoka, PhilKnight, Queen Rhana, RJFJR, Rama's Arrow, Rao Ravindra, Razzsic,
Rich Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roland zh, Salilb, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Smsarmad, Spartiate, Sunil060902, Tahirakram, Tim!, Tintinl 107, Trehan, Utcursch, W. B. Wilson, X42bn6,
YellowMonkey, 61 anonymous edits

Lahore Front Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=492203993 Contributors: Ahmedshah 1990, Akerans, Anthony Appleyard, Anupam, Ardfern, Arjun024, AtticusX, Batinde,
Bhattil020, Bluerasberry, Buklaodord, DBigXray, Dreadstar, Errormeek, Gaius Cornelius, HonorprevailsI23, Idleguy, Iridescent, K.Khokhar, Lightmouse, LilHelpa, M.A.R 1993, Mholland,
Minister of Darkness, Mohammad adil, NapoleonARS, Nsaa, NuclearWarfare, Ohconfucius, Panzerkampf 1 990, Pearle, Peter Karlsen, Qasibr, Rao Ravindra, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, S3000,
Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Sdgaw 1 , Shadowjams, Smsarmad. Spartiate, Syed Tirmizi, Tabletop, Tazmainia20, TopGun, Uchiah24, UplinkAnsh, Vedant, Vinsfan368, 1 05 anonymous edits

Battle of Longewala Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=488323588 Contributors: A. S. Aulakh, Abarry, Adi87tya, Alex, Algebraicl23, Altzinn, AnonMoos, Anthony
Appleyard, Anupam, Ardfern, Arjayay, Arnab kl4, Art LaPella, Atulsnischal, AvicAWB, Awaisl41, Bhadani, Bilalsafdarl, Brainhell, Buckshot06, Buklaodord, Bulbous, Bunchofgrapes, CALR,
Cemsworth, Chaiturocks, Chhora, Chitransh Gaurav, Cmdrjameson, Cookiemobsta, D6, DBigXray, Dabomb87, Darkness Shines, Davel 185, Deepak, Digitalme, Duplode, EdJohnston, Eiffelle,
Elockid, Eraserheadl, Freekashmiri 1 , Gaius Cornelius, GardarRurak, GraemeLeggett, Guptadeepak, Hetar, Hunnjazal, I Have Proofs to what I say, II MusLiM HyBRiD II, Iccotdis, Idleguy,
Iridescent, J04n, James young junior, James young75, JoanneB, Joy, Kevinsam, Kirill Lokshin, KnowledgeHegemonyPart2, Lihaas, LilHelpa, LordGulliverofGalben, Mlangr42, Madan80,
Madhavacharya, Mail2amitabha, ManchesterUnitedLiverpool, MarcusMaximusO, Mboverload, Mieciu K, Mkarja, Mrg3105, Msinghl978, N2271, Neutrality, Nishkid64, Nshuks7, Ohconfucius,
Oscarthecat, P.K.Niyogi, Pakistanfanforeva, Pectore, Perseus71, PigFlu Oink, Politepunk, PrestonH, PrettyParis2, Purifyingfire, Quadell, R'n'B, Ranam, Rcacitizen, Reenem, Reuben. cornel, Rich

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Farmbrough, Rjwilmsi, Roshangeorge, Rueben lys, S3000, Saad Farooq, Sabretooth, Sairakhalid737, SalilSBudhe, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Saurabhb, SchreiberBike, Scout32, Shovon76,
Shriram, Shyamsunder, Smsarmad, Spartiate, Striker7x, Swapnils2106, Tabletop, Tassedethe, The Anorae, The Silent Contributor, Tim!, Timl357, TomahawkHunter, Tonei, Ukexpat,
UplinkAnsh, Utcursch, Varlaam, Varunramdas777, Vontrotta, WadeSimMiser, Warrior4321, Woland37, Woody, Xero675, Xp0z3d, YellowMonkey, 232 anonymous edits

Meghna Heli Bridge Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=483803658 Contributors: Aldis90, Anthony Appleyard, Biketestl23, Dar-Ape, Deb, Eep 2 , Jaiiaf, KelleyCook, Kevin
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Mitro Bahini Order of Battle December 1971 Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=49088 1 862 Contributors: Alvin Seville, Docu, Maglorbd, Paalappoo, Shyamsunder, Squids
and Chips, Welsh, Woohookitty, YUL89YYZ, 4 anonymous edits

Operation Chengiz Khan Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=49385459I Contributors: 2D, Anotherclown, Appraiser, Ardfern, Axeman89, Bender235, BigrTex, Binksternet,
Colonies Chris, Crystallina, DBigXray, Dar-Ape, Darydashy, De Administrando Imperio, DemiurgelOOO, Devanampriya, Dragonbeast, Dspradau, Echuck215, FeatherPluma, Firsfron,
GoingBatty, Greenshed, Guthrum, Hasan Zenith, Hobophobe, Hongooi, Iainl917, Ian Pitchford, Idleguy, Jaiiaf, John J. Bulten, Koavf, Lkinkade, Manxruler, Mar4d, Matthew Proctor, Merlin48,
Mike 7, Mike Young, Mild Bill Hiccup, Misaq Rabab, Natobxl, Oatmeal batman, Pahari Sahib, R'n'B, Ragib, Razzsic, Reahad, Reenem, Rhatsa26X, Rjwilmsi, Rueben lys, Samdacruel,
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Operation Gibraltar Source: http: //en. wiki pedia.org/ w/index.php?oldid=490465446 Contributors: Arjun024, Bobblehead, DBigXray, Dan6hell66, Darklilac, DavidLevinson, Deeptrivia,
Descendall, Dicklyon, Edward Waverley, Er.arunthakur, Evocativelntrigue, EyeSerene, Feeeedo, Freedom skies, G.W., Gaius Cornelius, Hadil 121, Idleguy, Jennavecia, Kirill Lokshin, Koavf,
Ladislaus, M.A.R 1993, Marathi mulgaa, Mboverload, Megankadriver, Msra6cf2, Nehrams2020, Omer.qadir, Pmhayes, R'n'B, Rajal020, Razzsic, RedCoatlO, Reenem, Rjwilmsi, SFHuda,
Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Saxbryn, Shovon76, Siddiqui, Signalhead, Skapur, Smsarmad, Swift&silent, Talha, That Guy, From That Show!, Townblight, Ulricl313, UplinkAnsh, Viscious81,
Vontrotta, Wakkac, Who ever I am2, J-ic O-itf, 99 anonymous edits

Operation Meghdoot Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493510894 Contributors: Abhishek.iitd, Abhishekmathur, AdityaguptalOl, Alchemist Jack, Alex Bakharev,
Alexdeangelis86, Ardfern, AshLin, Axeman89, Barath s, Beland, Bharatveer, Bobrayner, Bondegezou, CanadianNine, Cheesel 125, Closedmouth, CommonsDelinker, DBigXray, DLinth,
Dam30, De Administrando Imperio, Elockid, Etml57, Evocativelntrigue, Fratrep, Freedom skies, Friism, Gaganlllll, Green Giant, GregorB, Hellfire83, Hellno2, Hibernian, Hi story lover365,
Hugo999, Hyarmendacil, Idleguy, Ironboyl 1, Jaraalbe, Jonathanvarunbenjamin, Jovianeye, JuJube, KelleyCook, King Zebu, Krasniy, Krellis, Leandrod, Legaleagle86, Lightmouse, Lothar von
Richthofen, Manmohanbahadur, Nishkid64, Oblivious, Pgallert, Pulveriser, Rayshade, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, Rich257, Robertson-Glasgow, Roll-Stone, Sandip90. Sardanaphalus,
Shovon76, Shyamsunder, Signalhead, Sir Nicholas de Mimsy-Porpington, Skcpublic, Smsarmad, SpaceFlight89, Theseawolf, Tiger Khan, UplinkAnsh, Vishnava, Vizmur, WikHead, Wroscel,
101 anonymous edits

Operation Safed Sagar Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=4904 19855 Contributors: Ahpook, Ardfern, AshLin, Chanakyathegreat, Download, Dude wheresmy wallet, Firsfron,
GTBacchus, Giraffedata, Gongshow, Green Giant, Idleguy, IndianGeneralist, Jaiiaf, J0rdan, KelleyCook, Kelly Martin, LilHelpa, Macaddctl984, Majorly, Pearle, Polar, Prganapathy, R'n'B,
RGS, Ranam, Rueben lys, S Seagal, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Scoty6776, Shyamsunder, Skcpublic, Smsarmad, Sniperzl 1, Snowolf, That Guy, From That Show!, Viscious8I, VishalB, Vishnava,
Woohookitty, 28 anonymous edits

Battle of Phillora Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=491914969 Contributors: Airplaneman, Anthony Appleyard, DBigXray, Download, Ekanzoy, Errormeek,
Greatmotherindia, Hmains, King Zebu, Mar4d, Mohammad adil, Panzerkampf 1 990, Reenem, Rich Farmbrough, Saroshp, TopGun, UplinkAnsh, Vinay84, Vipinhari, Warrior4321,
YellowMonkey, 14 anonymous edits

Tangail Airdrop Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=4392033I9 Contributors: Angusmclellan, Anthony Appleyard, Appraiser, Ardfern, Awiseman, Btball, D6,
Dudewheresmywallet, Nick Number, Punitpankaj. Ragib, Ranam, Riana, Rjwilmsi, Rueben lys, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Smsarmad, Srinivara, ThatPeskyCommoner, Tim!, 17 anonymous edits

Battle of Tololing Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=493339618 Contributors: A D Monroe III, Andy anno, Aranherunar, Ardfern, Bluetooth954, Idleguy, Jllm06, LRBurdak,
Mboverload, Nittwit0610, Sardanaphalus, Saroshp, Shyamsunder, Smsarmad, Stbalbach, SteinbDJ, Trelawnie, Vedant, 10 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors 408

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Image :Dakotas in Poonch 1947.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.0rg/w/index. php?title=File:Dakotas_in_Poonch_l 947.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Government of India

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en.wikipedia

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File:Indian army soldier after siege of Kut q79446.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?title=File:Indian_army_soldier_after_siege_of_Kut_q79446.jpg License: Public Domain

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Yann

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File: Maharaja of Kashmir, Hari Singh (1895 - 1961).jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php'?title=File:Maharaja_of_Kashmir,_Hari_Singh_(1895_-_1961).jpg License: Public
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